Generated by All in One SEO v5.0.0.1, this is an llms.txt file, used by LLMs to index the site. # IASZoology.com Zoology and Entomology articles - The Indian Administrative Service Zoology ## Sitemaps - [XML Sitemap](https://www.iaszoology.com/sitemap.xml): Contains all public & indexable URLs for this website. ## Posts - [Beavers - The Dam Builders](https://www.iaszoology.com/beavers-the-dam-builders/) - Beavers (Castor) are rodents with sharp incisors with which they can fell large trees to build dams across rivers in Canada and Europe. - [Beavers - The Dam Builders](https://www.iaszoology.com/beavers-the-dam-builders/) - Beavers (Castor) are rodents with sharp incisors with which they can fell large trees to build dams across rivers in Canada and Europe. - [Beavers - The Dam Builders](https://www.iaszoology.com/beavers-the-dam-builders/) - Beavers (Castor) are rodents with sharp incisors with which they can fell large trees to build dams across rivers in Canada and Europe. - [Beavers - The Dam Builders](https://www.iaszoology.com/beavers-the-dam-builders/) - Beavers (Castor) are rodents with sharp incisors with which they can fell large trees to build dams across rivers in Canada and Europe. - [General Information About Civil Services Examinations](https://www.iaszoology.com/general-information/) - This site is aimed to help students and others interested in the study of zoology and preparation for various competitive examinations such as the Indian Administrative Service (IAS) & Indian Forest Service (IFoS). The information given in this website is available free of any charge. However, commercial use or redistribution of the information provided on this website - [Model organisms used in research](https://www.iaszoology.com/model-organisms-for-research/) - Some organisms by virtue of being easy to handle and breed and to maintain large colonies in the laboratory, have become popular experimental animals. Some of them have been in use for such a long time that information available on their biology, anatomy, physiology, genetics etc. is overwhelming. That makes them suitable organisms for further scientific investigations. Details - [Economic Zoology](https://www.iaszoology.com/insect/) - Economic zoology deals with the application of zoological knowledge for the benefit of mankind. It includes culturing animals for mass production for human use and to control or eradicate animals that are injurious to man directly or indirectly. The following chapters are included here. Click on the title to open. Books on Economic Zoology Beneficial - [The Chordates](https://www.iaszoology.com/chordata/) - Chordates are characterised by a rod-like notochord and a hollow nerve cord on the dorsal side of the gut, and pharynx being perforated with gill slits for respiration. Vertebrates have a vertebral column that replaces the notochord, cephalization of the nervous system, a ventral heart, a post-anal tail and division of the coelom into chambers. The following - [The Chordates](https://www.iaszoology.com/chordata/) - Chordates are characterised by a rod-like notochord and a hollow nerve cord on the dorsal side of the gut, and pharynx being perforated with gill slits for respiration. Vertebrates have a vertebral column that replaces the notochord, cephalization of the nervous system, a ventral heart, a post-anal tail and division of the coelom into chambers. The following - [The Chordates](https://www.iaszoology.com/chordata/) - Chordates are characterised by a rod-like notochord and a hollow nerve cord on the dorsal side of the gut, and pharynx being perforated with gill slits for respiration. Vertebrates have a vertebral column that replaces the notochord, cephalization of the nervous system, a ventral heart, a post-anal tail and division of the coelom into chambers. The following - [Animal Behaviour](https://www.iaszoology.com/animal-behavior/) - Behavioral science or ethology involves study of animal behavior in natural surroundings. How animals behavior is influenced by the neuroendocrine system. - [Yoga to improve learning](https://www.iaszoology.com/yoga-to-improve-learning/) - Yoga is an entirely different concept of improving learning and memory and general upkeep of health and mental alertness. Physical exercises that involve skeletal muscles enhance respiratory rate and blood circulation but cause oxygen debt in the body and increase lactic acid concentration in blood and muscles and hence do not benefit the endocrine glands, smooth muscles and - [My Blog](https://www.iaszoology.com/honey-bee/) - MY BLOG (Dr. Chandra) The fact that is least realised by the students is that competitive examinations are considerably different from the house examinations of colleges and universities, where they manage to score heavily but fail to do so in the competitives. The primary reason for this happens to be that they continue with - [Biological Instruments And Techniques](https://www.iaszoology.com/instrumental-methods/) - biological instruments used in research - [Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy](https://www.iaszoology.com/comparative-anatomy/) - Comparative Anatomy is to make a comparative study of the anatomy of an organ in different groups of vertebrates and try to derive the evolutionary significance from it, and to understand as to why an organ evolved the way it is present now. Genetic and environmental forces are responsible for the development of an organ, - [Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy](https://www.iaszoology.com/comparative-anatomy/) - Comparative Anatomy is to make a comparative study of the anatomy of an organ in different groups of vertebrates and try to derive the evolutionary significance from it, and to understand as to why an organ evolved the way it is present now. Genetic and environmental forces are responsible for the development of an organ, - [Comparative Vertebrate Anatomy](https://www.iaszoology.com/comparative-anatomy/) - Comparative Anatomy is to make a comparative study of the anatomy of an organ in different groups of vertebrates and try to derive the evolutionary significance from it, and to understand as to why an organ evolved the way it is present now. Genetic and environmental forces are responsible for the development of an organ, - [Geographical Distribution of Animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/zoogeography/) - Zoogeographyis the study of distribution of animals and plants on our planet, which occur in different regions of the world in a distinct pattern. The distribution of some animal species is so peculiar that it is difficult to explain their occurrence in a particular region. Zoogeography attempts to understand the complexities as well as the - [Systematics & Taxonomy](https://www.iaszoology.com/systematics/) - Systematics is the study of the diversity of animals and plants and their evolutionary relationships. Taxonomy deals with the classification of organisms, giving them scientific names and categorizing them on scientific basis. The following chapters are included in this category. Click on the title to open. Books on Systematics The species concept and related categories - [Animal Diversity (Non-Chordata)](https://www.iaszoology.com/animal-diversity-non-chordata/) - invertebrate, nonchordate animals - [Ecology & Environment](https://www.iaszoology.com/ecology/) - Ecology is a science to study organisms living in an environment and interacting with it and among themselves. It gives importance to both living and non-living components that affect each other. The following topics are covered in this section. Click on the title to open. Books on ecology and environment Integrated Pest Management Ecological destruction - [Ecology & Environment](https://www.iaszoology.com/ecology/) - Ecology is a science to study organisms living in an environment and interacting with it and among themselves. It gives importance to both living and non-living components that affect each other. The following topics are covered in this section. Click on the title to open. Books on ecology and environment Integrated Pest Management Ecological destruction - [Ecology & Environment](https://www.iaszoology.com/ecology/) - Ecology is a science to study organisms living in an environment and interacting with it and among themselves. It gives importance to both living and non-living components that affect each other. The following topics are covered in this section. Click on the title to open. Books on ecology and environment Integrated Pest Management Ecological destruction - [Applied Entomology](https://www.iaszoology.com/applied-entomology/) - Applied or economic Entomology deals with both destructive and useful insects, namely, productive insects such as honey bee and silk worm, whose products can be directly used by man. Pollinators such as bees, wasps and butterflies, and parasites that keep in check the noxious pests of agriculture, also benefit humans. Control of pests of agriculture, - [The Wildlife of India](https://www.iaszoology.com/wildlife-india/) - wild animals of different kinds - [The Wildlife of India](https://www.iaszoology.com/wildlife-india/) - wild animals of different kinds - [General Entomology](https://www.iaszoology.com/general-entomology/) - Entomology is the science of studying insects that constitute about 75% of the animal kingdom as far as the number of species is concerned. They are ubiquitous and highly diversified creatures and hence are an interesting subject of study. The following topics appear in this section. Click on the title to open. Books on Entomology Classification - [Evolution](https://www.iaszoology.com/evolution/) - Evolution is a change from generation to generation in organisms. - [Insect Pests of Stored Grains](https://www.iaszoology.com/pests-of-stored-grains/) - When harvested produce is stored in houses, godowns and warehouses, it is attacked by a variety of insects that specialize in thriving under enclosed conditions. Although moisture, fungus, rodents and birds also cause damage to the stored grains, insects are considered to be the chief destroyers of harvested grains. The following insect pests are included in this section. Click on the pest to open. - [Insect pests of forest & orchards](https://www.iaszoology.com/pests-of-forest-orchards/) - Large trees in forests, plantations and orchards are attacked by different types of insects. Generally in forests, insect populations are maintained below the damage levels by their natural enemies. But sometimes pest outbreaks do take place causing immense damage to trees and timber. In orchards pest control strategies have to be in place to deal - [Insect pests of forest & orchards](https://www.iaszoology.com/pests-of-forest-orchards/) - Large trees in forests, plantations and orchards are attacked by different types of insects. Generally in forests, insect populations are maintained below the damage levels by their natural enemies. But sometimes pest outbreaks do take place causing immense damage to trees and timber. In orchards pest control strategies have to be in place to deal - [Medical Entomology](https://www.iaszoology.com/medical-entomology/) - Many insects transmit diseases in humans or suck blood or cause nuisance and irritation and hence are undesirable and need eradication. The following insects are included in this section. Click on the title to open. Bed bugs Fleas House flies Sucking lice Mosquitoes Sand flies Tsetse fly - [Medical Entomology](https://www.iaszoology.com/medical-entomology/) - Many insects transmit diseases in humans or suck blood or cause nuisance and irritation and hence are undesirable and need eradication. The following insects are included in this section. Click on the title to open. Bed bugs Fleas House flies Sucking lice Mosquitoes Sand flies Tsetse fly - [ANIMAL DISEASES](https://www.iaszoology.com/profile-dr-chandra111/) - Animals suffer from a variety of diseases like humans. In animal husbandry, poultry, and pets it is important to know the symptoms of diseases so that timely treatment can be done. Many animal diseases are described briefly under the following headings. Viral diseases of animals Bacterial diseases of animals Protozoan diseases of animals Helminthic diseases - [Syllabus, Civil Services & Forest Services Exams](https://www.iaszoology.com/syllabus-cs/) - PRELIMINARY SYLLABUS - INDIAN CIVIL SERVICES EXAMINATIONS (UPSC) (With effect from 2011, the pattern of preliminary exam. has changed. There is no optional subject now. The change is notified as follows: Changes in syllabus and pattern of the Preliminary Examination from 2011 in the scheme of Civil Services Examination • As per the decision of Government of - [Human diseases](https://www.iaszoology.com/human-diseases/) - Diseases that affect humans need to be diagnosed accurately before they can be treated. In this section, diagnosis, pathogenesis, identification of causative organism, prevention including vaccination wherever available, treatment and drugs commonly prescribed are given. Details of the following diseases are given in this section. Click on the title to open. Dengue Japanese Encephalitis Rabies - [Vectors of diseases](https://www.iaszoology.com/vectors/) - Many species of insects transmit diseases in humans and animals, while some are blood suckers that cause pain, irritation and allergies. Sometimes, the arthropod borne diseases reach epidemic proportions when vector control becomes as important as the disease itself. Detail studies of biology, seasonal history and transmission capacities of these vectors are very important - [Amazing Animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/amazing-animals/) - amazing facts about animals - [Cell Biology](https://www.iaszoology.com/cell-biology/) - Microtomy Plasmids - [Pests of crops](https://www.iaszoology.com/home-page/) - Insect pests of agriculture. - [Polar Bear - Largest land carnivore](https://www.iaszoology.com/polar-bear/) - Polar bear is the largest carnivore, found in icy arctic circle. Its zoological name is Ursus maritimus. Its fur is snow white in colour. It is a predator of seals. - [Vampire Bats - The Blood Suckers](https://www.iaszoology.com/vampire-bats/) - Vampire bats are blood-sucking small flying mammals found in South America which actually have no relationship with the much feared blood sucking Dracula. - [Naked Mole Rat](https://www.iaszoology.com/naked-mole-rat/) - The naked mole rat is a bizarre rodent that spends its entire life span in underground tunnels, due to which its body and looks have undergone drastic changes. - [Sensory filtering](https://www.iaszoology.com/sensory-filtering/) - Animal brain received much more information than it can register and hence a lot of information is blocked at the level of sense organs, cranial nerves or brain - [Sign Stimuli](https://www.iaszoology.com/sign-stimuli/) - Sign stimuli are those stimuli which elicit fixed action pattern from the animal. They are also called releasers or key stimuli to which the animals respond. - [Learning](https://www.iaszoology.com/learning/) - Learning is the ability of animal to remember past experiences and modify its behavior accordingly. Learning is important in day to day existence and survival. - [Drive, Urge Or Motivation in Animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/drive/) - The term Drive was introduced by Woodworth (1918) as motivational concept. Animals experienced drive as biological needs such as eating and drinking and alteration in their behaviour. Drive theories were later given by Sigmund Freud (1915) and Clark Hull (1943). Freud, who was physiologist by training, believed that drives and urges such as hunger were - [Alarm Pheromones](https://www.iaszoology.com/alarm-pheromones/) - Alarm pheromones are chemicals released by exocrine glands that attract the individuals of the same species. They modify the behavior of the animal. - [Crypsis (Deception In Predator-Prey Interaction)](https://www.iaszoology.com/crypsis/) - Crypsis is deception by animals to fool others in order to survive or to kill the prey. This includes protective coloration & resemblance, and mimicry. - [Social Organisation In Insects](https://www.iaszoology.com/social-insects/) - Social life involves insect societies in which large no. of individuals live together and practice division of labour as found in ants, temites, bees &wasps. - [Social Life In Primates](https://www.iaszoology.com/social-primates/) - Primates are social animals as they live in large groups and share food, space etc. and communicate with one another. Prosimians, monkeys & apes are primates. - [Courtship Behaviour in Animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/courtship/) - In Courtship display male uses auditory or visual stimuli to attract female for mating. It involves singing, dancing, feather display to attract the female. - [Orientation, Navigation and Homing in Animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/orientation/) - Orientation is position of the animal with reference to stimulus which may be attractive or repelling. Kinesis and taxis are two types of orientation. - [Orientation, Navigation and Homing in Animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/orientation/) - Orientation is position of the animal with reference to stimulus which may be attractive or repelling. Kinesis and taxis are two types of orientation. - [Kinship, Selfishness And Altruism](https://www.iaszoology.com/kinship/) - Kinship, altruism and selfishness are interactions in populations. Altruism evolves in related individuals where members sacrifice for the sake of species. - [Kinship, Selfishness And Altruism](https://www.iaszoology.com/kinship/) - Kinship, altruism and selfishness are interactions in populations. Altruism evolves in related individuals where members sacrifice for the sake of species. - [Biological Rhythms - Chronobiology](https://www.iaszoology.com/biological-rhythms/) - Biological rhythms of animals are self-sustaining inherent cycles of activity, reproduction, hibernation etc. which are supported by biological clock. - [Methods Of Studying Animal Behaviour](https://www.iaszoology.com/methods-of-study/) - Animal behavior comes under ethology. Different animals behave differently in any given situation. Various field and lab. methods are available to study this. - [Methods Of Studying Animal Behaviour](https://www.iaszoology.com/methods-of-study/) - Animal behavior comes under ethology. Different animals behave differently in any given situation. Various field and lab. methods are available to study this. - [Methods Of Studying Animal Behaviour](https://www.iaszoology.com/methods-of-study/) - Animal behavior comes under ethology. Different animals behave differently in any given situation. Various field and lab. methods are available to study this. - [Methods Of Studying Animal Behaviour](https://www.iaszoology.com/methods-of-study/) - Animal behavior comes under ethology. Different animals behave differently in any given situation. Various field and lab. methods are available to study this. - [KEA - The predatory parrot](https://www.iaszoology.com/kea-the-predatory-parrot/) - Kea is a parrot found in New Zealand, which took to carnivorous diet just by chance when humans colonized the islands. - [Geographical Distribution of Animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/zoogeography/) - Zoogeographyis the study of distribution of animals and plants on our planet, which occur in different regions of the world in a distinct pattern. The distribution of some animal species is so peculiar that it is difficult to explain their occurrence in a particular region. Zoogeography attempts to understand the complexities as well as the - [Drive, Urge Or Motivation in Animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/drive/) - The term Drive was introduced by Woodworth (1918) as motivational concept. Animals experienced drive as biological needs such as eating and drinking and alteration in their behaviour. Drive theories were later given by Sigmund Freud (1915) and Clark Hull (1943). Freud, who was physiologist by training, believed that drives and urges such as hunger were ## Pages - [Contact](https://www.iaszoology.com/contact/) - Academic inputs by Dr. Girish Chandra, ex Professor , Delhi University For website related issues, please email webmaster@iaszoology.com. - [Apiculture](https://www.iaszoology.com/apiculture/) - Honeybees are indigenous to the Eurasian and African continents and were introduced to the Americas and Australia by European settlers. In India the genus Apis has the following species: the western honey bee, Apis mellifera, the eastern honey bee, Apis cerana indica, the rock bee, Apis dorsata and the small bush bee Apis florea. The - [About Dr. Chandra](https://www.iaszoology.com/about-2/) - Profile and biodata of Dr. Girish Chandra, Professor at Delhi University. - [Origin of chordates](https://www.iaszoology.com/chordate-origin/) - Chordates evolved sometime during Cambrian period, 500 million years ago during Cambrian explosion, almost at the same time when invertebrates were beginning to evolve. They may have evolved from some freshwater forms as Chamberlain (1900) pointed out that all modern chordates possess glomerular kidneys that are designed to remove excess water from body. However, early - [Origin of chordates](https://www.iaszoology.com/chordate-origin/) - Chordates evolved sometime during Cambrian period, 500 million years ago during Cambrian explosion, almost at the same time when invertebrates were beginning to evolve. They may have evolved from some freshwater forms as Chamberlain (1900) pointed out that all modern chordates possess glomerular kidneys that are designed to remove excess water from body. However, early - [Classification of Chordata](https://www.iaszoology.com/classification-of-chordata/) - PHYLUM CHORDATA Group ACRANIA (=PROTOCHORDATA) (Primitive chordates without head and vertebral column) Subphylum HEMICHORDATA, Balanoglossus,Cephalodiscus, Rhabdopleura, primitive and doubtful chordates, now classified under non-chordates after echinoderms. Subphylum UROCHORDATA, Herdmania, Salpa, Doliolum, Pyrosoma, Oikopleura sedentary or planktonic tunicates in which chordate characters manifest in the larval stage. Subphylum CEPHALOCHORDATA, Amphioxus, Asymmetron, typical chordates having chordate characters - [Books on Chordata](https://www.iaszoology.com/chordata-books/) - G.J.Tortora & N.P. Anagnostakos, 1984. Principles of anatomy and physiology. (Harper & Row Publ., N.Y.). 838 pages. A.J. Marshall, 1995. Textbook of zoology, Vertebrates. (The McMillan Press Ltd., UK). 852 pages. (Revised edition of Parker & Haswell, 1961). Liem, Karel F., William E. Bemis, Warren F. Walker, Lance Grande, 2001. Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: - [Mammalian Wildlife](https://www.iaszoology.com/mammalian-wildlife/) - MONOTREMES (THE EGG LAYING MAMMALS) The ECHIDNA (Tachyglossus and Zaglossus) Echidna is sometimes referred to as a Spiny Anteater since it has sharp spines on their backs. The Echidna is found all over Australia in different temperatures and habitats. Echidnas live in forests, woodlands, deserts and mountains. They are generally crepuscular and nocturnal, when they - [Avian Wildlife](https://www.iaszoology.com/avian-wildlife/) - The Flightless Birds African Ostrich,Struthio camelus Head and neck without feathers; feet with two toes; height up to ten feet and weight up to 150 kg; male incubates eggs. South American ostrich, Rhea americana Head and neck feathered; feet with 3 toes, webbed at base; smaller than African ostrich; eggs lemon yellow, incubated by male. - [Reptilian Wildlife](https://www.iaszoology.com/reptilian-wildlife/) - CHELONIA (The tortoises and turtles) Four-toed tortoise – Testudo horsfieldi – Found in Baluchistan. The Leatherback – Dermochelys coriacea – Shell is soft and leathery. Largest among the sea turtle, weighing about 500 kg and up to 3 m in length. Found in Nicobar beach. Hawksbill turtle – Eretmochelys imbricata – It is named because - [Amphibian Wildlife](https://www.iaszoology.com/amphibian-wildlife/) - There are 6184 species of amphibians today. The West African goliath frog, which is 30 cm long and weighs 3.3 kilograms, is the largest anuran and the smallest is the Brazilian brachycephalid tree frog, which reaches a length of only 9.8 mm. Frogs and toads show the greatest diversity in tropics while salamanders inhabit the - [Fish Wildlife](https://www.iaszoology.com/fish-wildlife/) - CARTILAGENOUS FISHES Sharks The bull shark, Carcharhinus leucas, also known as Zambi in Africa is a common worldwide species found in warm shallow waters along sea coasts and in rivers. The Bull shark can thrive in both saltwater and freshwater and can travel far up into the rivers. Whale shark(Rhincodon typus) is world’s largest fish - [Carp culture](https://www.iaszoology.com/carp-culture/) - Indian aquaculture has been growing at a fast pace over the last two decades, with freshwater aquaculture contributing over 95% of the production. The three Indian major carps, namely catla (Catla catla), rohu (Labeo rohita) and mrigal (Cirrhinusmrigala) contribute to the bulk of production amounting to about two million tonnes annually (FAO, 2003). Silver - [Biological Control of pests](https://www.iaszoology.com/biological-control-of-pests/) - Regulation of pest abundance below the level of economic injury is the target of biological control, which is usually done by study, importation, augmentation and conservation of beneficial organisms for the regulation of harmful animal’s population. Most of the agricultural pests are insects and these have natural enemies, which are also mostly insects. Therefore most - [Sericulture](https://www.iaszoology.com/sericulture/) - Sericulture was first introduced into China by Hoshomin, the Queen of China. For a long time sericulture was considered to be a national secret by the Chinese and its industrial technique was not known in other countries. Later, it was introduced into Europe and Japan by smuggling the secrets from China through travelling monks. According - [Honey Bee](https://www.iaszoology.com/honey-bees/) - Honey bees are colonial insects that visit flowers, collect nectar and convert it into a golden-yellow aromatic viscous fluid called honey, which is also called the liquid gold of nature. There is nothing comparable to honey, whether natural or manmade. It is a complete food made and stored by honeybees for the whole colony. Honey - [Classification of mammals](https://www.iaszoology.com/classification-of-mammals/) - Class MAMMALIA Mammals are defined as vertebrates that possess hairs and mammary glands for feeding young. They also possess a four-chambered heart, a large cerebral cortex, three distinctive bones: incus, malleus and stapes in the middle ear, a diaphragm for breathing, heterodont and thecodont dentition, limbs attached under the body, dicondylic skull and acoelous vertebrae. - [Classification of birds](https://www.iaszoology.com/classification-of-birds/) - classification of class aves - [Evolution of birds](https://www.iaszoology.com/evolution-of-birds/) - Cold blooded animals obtain their body heat from the environment, as their energy output is low and they do not need to sustain activities over prolonged periods. Thermoregulatory mechanism in reptiles depends on low metabolic rate, with little insulation of skin, resulting in rapid exchange of heat with environment. Any insulation on the body will - [Migration in Birds](https://www.iaszoology.com/indian-migratory-birds/) - The primary aim of migration is to take advantage of the longer days of the northern summer for breeding and to feed their young and to avoid harsh winters. The extended daylight hours allow diurnal birds to produce larger clutches of eggs than those of non-migratory species that remain in the tropics all the year - [Flight Adaptations In Birds](https://www.iaszoology.com/flight-adaptations/) - Flying is a balance between two sets of forces, lift and weight, and thrust and drag. Weight is the result of gravity and Lift is generated by the flow of air over the wings. Bird wings are not flat but are concave below and convex above. The air that passes over the top of - [Social life in Insects](https://www.iaszoology.com/social-life-insects/) - Social insects are those which live in colonies and their members show some kind of division of labour according to which members of the colony are modified according to the duty they perform in the colony. TERMITES (Isoptera) Termites are commonly known as white ants and are one of those few animal species that survive - [The Ants - Advanced Societies](https://www.iaszoology.com/the-ants/) - Ants, the cousins of honeybees, are workaholic as they are busy working day and night. Addicted to work and having never-say-die spirit, make them excellent foragers which work round the clock, apparently without any rest. SOCIAL STRUCTURE Ants have the highest developed social system, next only to man, with no apparent conflict seen in the - [Lac culture](https://www.iaszoology.com/animals-insects-lac-insect-culture-laccifer/) - Members of two families of Hemiptera, namely, Lacciferidae and Tachardinidae secrete lac over their bodies for protection. Lac Insect belongs Laccifer of superfamily Coccoidea of order Hemiptera. In all 22 species have been recorded under the genus Laccifer in Indian subcontinent. India is still being regarded as the principal lac producing country of the world. - [Safe storage of grains](https://www.iaszoology.com/safe-storage-of-grains/) - The importance of grain storage as part of the marketing, distribution and food security system is well recognized. In 1978, following the resolution of the UN General Assembly which called for the reduction of post-harvest losses, FAO launched the Special Action Programme for Prevention of Food Losses (PFL). Since then more than 250 projects have - [Achaea janata, The Castor Semilooper](https://www.iaszoology.com/achaea-janata/) - Host: This is a pest of castor, pomegranate, rose, Zizyphus, Euphorbia, Tridax, Cardiospermum, Ficus, Bauhinia, Citrus, mango etc. Damage: Larvae defoliate plants quickly by feeding gregariously and voraciously. Midribs and veins are left intact and other parts of the leaves eaten up. Being larger in size, their capacity to cause damage is enormous. Young plants - [Achaea janata, The Castor Semilooper](https://www.iaszoology.com/achaea-janata/) - Host: This is a pest of castor, pomegranate, rose, Zizyphus, Euphorbia, Tridax, Cardiospermum, Ficus, Bauhinia, Citrus, mango etc. Damage: Larvae defoliate plants quickly by feeding gregariously and voraciously. Midribs and veins are left intact and other parts of the leaves eaten up. Being larger in size, their capacity to cause damage is enormous. Young plants - [Raphidopalpa foveicollis, Red Pumpkin Beetle](https://www.iaszoology.com/raphidopalpa-foveicollis/) - Host: This is a serious pest of cucurbits throughout the country. It infests all gourds, cucumber, melon, pumpkin etc. Damage: Both larvae and adults cause damage to the crop. Adults bite holes on the leaves, reducing the photosynthetic area of the leaf and thus lowering production. Flowers and fruits are also damaged by the adults. - [Raphidopalpa foveicollis, Red Pumpkin Beetle](https://www.iaszoology.com/raphidopalpa-foveicollis/) - Host: This is a serious pest of cucurbits throughout the country. It infests all gourds, cucumber, melon, pumpkin etc. Damage: Both larvae and adults cause damage to the crop. Adults bite holes on the leaves, reducing the photosynthetic area of the leaf and thus lowering production. Flowers and fruits are also damaged by the adults. - [Leucinodes orbonalis, The Brinjal Borer](https://www.iaszoology.com/leucinodes-orbonalis/) - Host: This is a pest of brinjal (Solanum melongena) but also attacks other solanaceous plants. Damage: Younger larvae bore into the midrib and petiole of the leaf, resulting in drooping of the leaves. Larvae also feed on the tender leaves and flower buds causing dead heart. Fruits are attacked by making a hole near the basal - [Aspidiotus perniciosus, San Jose Scale](https://www.iaszoology.com/aspidiotus-perniciosus/) - San Jose scale, Quadraspidiotus, Aspidiotus, apple pest in temperate countries - [Papilio demoleus, Citrus Butterfly or Orange Dog](https://www.iaszoology.com/papilio-demoleus/) - Papilio, swallow-tail, pest of citrus, orange dog, butterfly, caterpillar - [Heliothis armigera, The Gram Pod Borer](https://www.iaszoology.com/heliothis-armigera/) - Heliothis armigera, gram pod borer, Helicoverpa armigera - [Pyrilla perpusilla, The Sugarcane Leafhopper](https://www.iaszoology.com/pyrilla-perpusilla/) - Host: This insect is a serious pest of sugarcane in northern India where it also occasionally feeds on maize, millets, rice, barley, oats, sorghum, bajra and wild grasses. Damage: The pest is found gregariously on the under surface of the leaves where they suck up plant sap that causes yellowing and eventually drying of leaves. - [Pyrilla perpusilla, The Sugarcane Leafhopper](https://www.iaszoology.com/pyrilla-perpusilla/) - Host: This insect is a serious pest of sugarcane in northern India where it also occasionally feeds on maize, millets, rice, barley, oats, sorghum, bajra and wild grasses. Damage: The pest is found gregariously on the under surface of the leaves where they suck up plant sap that causes yellowing and eventually drying of leaves. - [Scirpophaga nivella, The Sugarcane Top Borer](https://www.iaszoology.com/scirpophaga-nivella/) - Host: Sugarcane. Damage: Young larvae bore into the midrib, leaving red markings and small holes on the leaves. Then the larvae tunnel in the upper portion of the stem, resulting in drying of the central shoot, causing “dead heart”. With the death of central shoot, side branches start growing from a lower node, giving a - [Sesamia inferens, The Pink Stemborer](https://www.iaszoology.com/sesamia-inferens/) - Host: This is a polyphagous pest that attacks wheat, rice, sorghum, finger millet, barley, sugarcane, bajra, maize and several wild grasses. Damage: Larva bores into the stem and hollows it out which results in dead heart. Life cycle: Adult moths are stout, fast flying insects having a wingspan of about 3.5 cm. They are straw - [Pectinophora gossypiella (Saunders), The Pink Bollworm](https://www.iaszoology.com/pectinophora-gossypiella/) - Hosts: It is a serious pest of cotton and also attacks hibiscus, okra, hollyhock and other malvaceous plants. Damage: In the younger crop larvae bore into tender squares and feed within resulting into drying of the terminal shoots. Later flower buds and bolls are attacked. Infested flower buds fail to open up completely due to webbing - [Erias vitella (Fab.) The Spotted Bollworm](https://www.iaszoology.com/erias-vitella/) - Host: Main host is cotton but also infests other malvaceous plants, namely, Okra, Hibiscus, Anthaea, Abutilon, Malvastrum etc. and is very common pest of ladyfinger. Damage: Young larvae attack growing shoots leading to drooping and withering of the top shoot. In later stages buds, flowers and bolls are also damaged. Flower buds open up prematurely - [Origin of Cow Mystery](https://www.iaszoology.com/origin-of-cow/) - Two species of cows exist today in the world, the humpless taurine cow, Bos taurus which is domesticated in Europe and North America and the humped Jebu cow, Bos indicus that occurs in India and Asian countries. Genetic analysis of mitochondrial DNA reveals marked differences between these two species although they interbreed and produce - [Blue whale - The Largest animal ever](https://www.iaszoology.com/blue-whale/) - The Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus) is a marine mammal belonging to order Cetacea which has the distinction of being the largest animal ever lived on earth, larger than the largest dinosaur. They are not predators like orca whales but feed on planktonic crustaceans, for which they travel thousands of kilometres across oceans often cruising at - [Zoology and Entomology for IAS Students](https://www.iaszoology.com/zoology-entomology-ias-students/) - Free online guidance to the students of Zoology All Academic content on the website is by Dr. Girish Chandra (unless stated otherwise), ex Professor , Delhi University - [Skin The Integument](https://www.iaszoology.com/skin/) - Integument, cutis or simply skin is the outermost covering of the body. It is the first organ of the body that is visible when we encounter an animal and helps us in identification of the type of organism. Although simple in appearance, skin is a complex organ that performs many functions in the body and - [Circulatory system](https://www.iaszoology.com/circulatory-system/) - Circulatory system is the transport system of body that carries oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients, hormones and other materials from the place where they are produced or absorbed to the place where they are needed by the tissues. Chemical energy must be constantly produced in the body to carry out all biological processes and to - [SIRM - STERILE MALE TECHNIQUE](https://www.iaszoology.com/insects-2/) - Sterile Insect Technique (SIT) Sterile Insect Release Method (SIRM) G. A. Runner, in 1916, found that low doses of X-rays decreased the reproductive capacity of the cigarette beetle, while higher doses killed them. By 1926 H.J. Muller had demonstrated that X-ray radiation will cause heritable changes in fruit flies (Drosophila melanogaster). Raymond Bushland and Edward Knipling - [Urochordata](https://www.iaszoology.com/urochordata/) - Urochordates have four fundamental characteristics of chordates in the larval stage but adult urochordates possess neither a notochord nor a dorsal nerve cord. The tadpole-like larvae are planktonic and possess the fundamental chordate characteristics that help them in finding a substratum for attachment. Body of Ascidians is covered by a tunic or test made of - [Yoga Science](https://www.iaszoology.com/yoga-science/) - SCIENCE AND SECRETS OF YOGA During the last couple of decades, yoga has emerged as a kind of fashion, thanks to its popularity in the West ever since Swami Vivekananda and Sri Aurobindo and now Swami Ramdev attracted the attention of both elite and intellectuals alike. This popularity however also attracted certain false yogis who - [The Species Concept](https://www.iaszoology.com/the-species/) - Species, as we know them, are groups of individuals that look alike, live together, and interact with one another and with the other kinds in a similar way. This is a very vague definition of species as nature has provided so many variations in animals that it is very difficult to precisely define a species. - [ELISA (Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay)](https://www.iaszoology.com/elisa/) - ELISA stands for "enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay" that is an immunochemical test involving an enzyme and an antibody or antigen. ELISA combines the specificity of antibodies with the sensitivity of simple enzyme assays, by using antibodies or antigens coupled to an easily assayed enzyme. ELISA tests are utilized to detect substances that have antigenic properties, primarily - [EXOPTERYGOTA](https://www.iaszoology.com/expterygota/) - Division EXOPTERYGOTA (=HEMIMETABOLA) Order EPHEMEROPTERA (Ephemeral=short-lived) (Ex. - Mayflies, Dayflies and Shadflies) They are small, light-coloured, soft-bodies, light greenish or yellowish insects. Head is prognathous and compound eyes well-developed. Ocelli three. Short, setiform antennae. Mouthparts biting and chewing type by vestigial. Weak clinging type of legs, with 5-jointed tarsi. Tip of abdomen with two or - [Venomous Animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/centipedes/) - CENTIPEDES Centipedes (Latin: hundred, legs) belong to Phylum Arthropoda, Subphylum Myriapoda, Class Chilopoda. They are elongated, dorsoventrally flattened, metameric animals with one pair of laterally attached legs in each body segment. They have a pair of venomous claws which are modified maxillipedes that are used for defence as well as for hunting small insects and - [Animal diseases](https://www.iaszoology.com/animal-diseases/) - VIRAL DISEASES SWAMP FEVER Equine Infectious Anaemia (EIA), also known as swamp fever is a horse disease caused by a retrovirus and transmitted by bloodsucking insects. The EIA virus is mechanically transmitted from one horse to another by the bloodsucking horse flies, deer flies (Tabanus), stable flies (Stomoxys spp.), mosquitoes and possibly midges. Symptoms include - [Beneficial and harmful insects](https://www.iaszoology.com/beneficial-and-harmful-insects/) - ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF INSECTS The estimated annual value of the ecological services provided by insects in the United States alone is at least $57 billion, an amount that justifies greater investment in the conservation of these services. Without the activities of insects, human life on earth would eventually be extinguished. Over one lakh currently living - [Continental drift theory](https://www.iaszoology.com/continental-drift-theory/) - The theory that the present day position of continents is not permanent but the continents constantly drift and change positions, was first proposed by Alfred Wegener (1904, 1912, 1924) who from close studies of maps, discovered that coastlines of all continents fitted together like a jigsaw puzzle, suggesting that all continents in the past were - [Digestive System](https://www.iaszoology.com/digestive-system/) - Digestive system includes alimentary canal and the associated glands. Alimentary canal or gut shows four distinct regions, namely, ingressive zone that includes mouth, lips and jaws for capturing and handling food; progressive zone includes oral cavity, pharynx and oesophagus through which food passes with little digestion; degressive zone contains stomach and small intestine in which - [Ecological destruction](https://www.iaszoology.com/ecological-destruction/) - Human Ecological Self-destruction We are different from others not just in having superior intelligence but more so in our ability to alter the environment to suit our needs. The constant change in our environment threatens the very survival of human species. Darwin's doctrine tells us that animals must change with the changing environment in order - [Earthworm](https://www.iaszoology.com/earthworm/) - Anatomy of earthworm - [Human Riddle](https://www.iaszoology.com/human-evolution-2/) - THE RIDDLE OF HUMAN ORIGIN Our own origin and existence on the planet earth happens to be one of the most puzzling facts of nature. There is hardly any straight record of human history prior to the invention of writing around 3,500 B.C., and while a large number of animals tell the story of their - [Evolutionary thoughts](https://www.iaszoology.com/evolutionary-thoughts/) - Evolutionary Theories Since time immemorial, man has been putting forward different theories to explain the origin of life and man himself on earth and how different kinds of life originated on earth and changed from time to time. Since ancient Greek’s time written records have been left about the views held by the people of - [Charles Darwin](https://www.iaszoology.com/charles-darwin/) - Darwin's biography and publications - [Human evolution](https://www.iaszoology.com/human-evolution/) - Origin of Man Origin of man is one of the most puzzling phenomena of nature. While the fossil records in the case of other animals doubtlessly reveal their ancestry, human fossil records are scanty and full of gaps. There is no written account of our ancestry other than the religious theories that unanimously indicate that - [Evolution Of Elephant](https://www.iaszoology.com/elephant/) - origin and evolution of elephants - [Fossils and fossilization](https://www.iaszoology.com/fossils/) - Fossils can include anything that gives an indication of the existence of prehistoric organisms. The Latin word Fossilium means ‘dug out’, which in earlier times meant to include any traces of body of animals and plants buried and preserved by natural causes. George Curvier (1769-1832) is considered ‘Father of palaeontology’, who studied fossils scientifically to develop - [Organic Variations](https://www.iaszoology.com/variations/) - In evolutionary terms, differences between closely related organisms are termed as variations. Thus differences between individuals of the same species, subspecies or race can be called variations and not differences between two genera, families or classes. Only heritable changes have evolutionary significance, since they only make the population change from generation to generation as the - [Natural Selection](https://www.iaszoology.com/natural-selection-2/) - Darwinism - (Theory of Natural Selection by Charles Darwin) SUMMARY Darwin's observations during the voyage of the Beagle made him think differently and changed his views permanently. He started believing that species change gradually due to the force of natural selection and started writing his ideas. In 1859, Darwin published his famous book, “Origin of species” that - [Evidences of evolution](https://www.iaszoology.com/evidences-of-evolution/) - Fossils are the only direct evidences to suggest that evolution has actually taken place and that the species are not fixed but ever changing entities. Unfortunately fossil history of almost every species is incomplete; thereby the evidence of fossils cannot be entirely relied upon in evolutionary studies. Therefore, other evidences, albeit circumstantial, have to be - [Primates, diversity and social life](https://www.iaszoology.com/primates-diversity-and-social-life/) - The name “Primate”, which means “First”, was proposed by the great Swedish naturalist, Carl von Linne, indicating the inclusion of man, the most advanced of all animals in this order. The group is pisible into three suborders, namely, Lemuroidea, Tarsioidea and Anthropoidea, the first two suborders are also collectively termed as Prosimians, meaning “primitive monkeys”. Anthropoidea - [Indian Snakes](https://www.iaszoology.com/indian-snakes/) - SNAKES OF INDIA Out of about 2,000 species of snakes found in the world, about 272 occur in India, which range from the 10 cm long worm snake to more than 6 meter long pythons and king cobras. They constitute approximately 10 percent of the total snake species found in the world and 80% of - [Indian Snakes](https://www.iaszoology.com/indian-snakes/) - SNAKES OF INDIA Out of about 2,000 species of snakes found in the world, about 272 occur in India, which range from the 10 cm long worm snake to more than 6 meter long pythons and king cobras. They constitute approximately 10 percent of the total snake species found in the world and 80% of - [The Crocodiles](https://www.iaszoology.com/crocodiles/) - different species of crocodiles - [Parental Care](https://www.iaszoology.com/parental-care/) - PARENTAL CARE IN AMPHIBIA Parental care means care of the eggs or juveniles till they reach the reproductive age. Parental care evolved to reduce the energy expenditure on reproduction, as in the absence of it animals must produce millions of eggs so that few could survive to replace the parents to ensure existence of the - [Parental Care](https://www.iaszoology.com/parental-care/) - PARENTAL CARE IN AMPHIBIA Parental care means care of the eggs or juveniles till they reach the reproductive age. Parental care evolved to reduce the energy expenditure on reproduction, as in the absence of it animals must produce millions of eggs so that few could survive to replace the parents to ensure existence of the - [Respiratory System](https://www.iaszoology.com/respiratory-system/) - In higher animals, the main function of respiratory system is to convey oxygen from the external environment to the tissues where it is used up for oxidation of glucose to produce energy, and to carry carbon dioxide that is produced in the tissues and release it out of the body. The blood along with its - [Respiratory System](https://www.iaszoology.com/respiratory-system/) - In higher animals, the main function of respiratory system is to convey oxygen from the external environment to the tissues where it is used up for oxidation of glucose to produce energy, and to carry carbon dioxide that is produced in the tissues and release it out of the body. The blood along with its - [Metamorphosis](https://www.iaszoology.com/landscapes/) - Metamorphosis is the transition during the life history of some animals from birth or hatching to the adult stage. Metamorphosis is considered an indirect form of development, in that a metamorphic animal passes through morphologically distinct stages before reaching the adult form. In contrast, higher animals undergo direct development in which young and old resemble - [Hemichordata](https://www.iaszoology.com/hemichordata/) - Phylum HEMICHORDATA They are marine worm-like animals having about 90 known species of worldwide distribution, all of which are benthic (living on the sea floor) in their adult form. The smallest species are only a few millimetres long and the largest, Balanoglossusgigas, can reach lengths of 1.5 metres. All known species feed on organic matter - [Sepia – The Cuttle Fish](https://www.iaszoology.com/sepia/) - Sepia is commonly called cuttle fish and belongs to class Cephalopoda and order decapoda. - [Pila Globosa – The Apple Snail](https://www.iaszoology.com/pila/) - Pila is an amphibious apple snail found in freshwater ponds and rice fields. - [Crustacea larvae](https://www.iaszoology.com/crustacea-larvae/) - description of larval forms of crustacea, arthropoda - [Arthropoda classification](https://www.iaszoology.com/arthropoda-classification/) - CLASSIFICATION OF ARTHROPODA (After Snodgrass, 1938, 1960) Phylum ARTHROPODA Arthropods are bilaterally symmetrical, metamerically segmented animals having chitinous exoskeleton. Moulting is necessary for growth. They possess jointed appendages, a haemocoel or schizocoelom and have open circulatory system. Segments as well as their appendages are specialized to form various organs. Arthropods constitute about 80% of all - [Taenia Solium – The Tape Worm](https://www.iaszoology.com/taenia-solium/) - Taenia is a flat worm that is commonly called tapeworm because of its flat and ribbon-like body. Taeniasolium is the pork tapeworm and the secondary host is pig, while T. saginata is the beef tapeworm whose secondary hosts are cows, buffalos, sheep and goat. Adult tapeworm lives in the small intestine of man attached to - [Taenia Solium – The Tape Worm](https://www.iaszoology.com/taenia-solium/) - Taenia is a flat worm that is commonly called tapeworm because of its flat and ribbon-like body. Taeniasolium is the pork tapeworm and the secondary host is pig, while T. saginata is the beef tapeworm whose secondary hosts are cows, buffalos, sheep and goat. Adult tapeworm lives in the small intestine of man attached to - [The Cattle Leech](https://www.iaszoology.com/the-cattle-leech/) - THE CATTLE LEECH, Hirudinaria graulosa About 600 species of leeches are known. The cattle Leech, found in ponds, lakes and swampy areas of India is a common species that sucks blood from various vertebrates, particularly cattle that frequent water. Almost 600 species of leeches are known. Hirudo medicinalis has been used to treat patients for - [Nereis – The Clam Worm Or Sandworm](https://www.iaszoology.com/nereis/) - Nereis or Neanthes is a marine polychaete annelid that lives in burrows in sea bottom and comes out in night to prey upon small animals. N. virens (Sandworm), N. pelagica (Type-species) and N. succinea (Clam worm) are common species of Nereis. Body of Nereis is dorsoventrally flattened, segmented and 30-40 cm long having 80 to - [Nereis – The Clam Worm Or Sandworm](https://www.iaszoology.com/nereis/) - Nereis or Neanthes is a marine polychaete annelid that lives in burrows in sea bottom and comes out in night to prey upon small animals. N. virens (Sandworm), N. pelagica (Type-species) and N. succinea (Clam worm) are common species of Nereis. Body of Nereis is dorsoventrally flattened, segmented and 30-40 cm long having 80 to - [Nereis – The Clam Worm Or Sandworm](https://www.iaszoology.com/nereis/) - Nereis or Neanthes is a marine polychaete annelid that lives in burrows in sea bottom and comes out in night to prey upon small animals. N. virens (Sandworm), N. pelagica (Type-species) and N. succinea (Clam worm) are common species of Nereis. Body of Nereis is dorsoventrally flattened, segmented and 30-40 cm long having 80 to - [Ascaris](https://www.iaszoology.com/ascaris/) - ASCARIS – THE ROUND WORM Ascaris lumbricoides is known as roundworm that is commonly found as intestinal parasite in vertebrates like man, pig, cattle etc. It is cosmopolitan in distribution but abundant in tropical countries. MORPHOLOGY Ascaris is a cylindrical worm, white to light pinkish in colour, tapering at both ends. Female measures 30-40 cm - [Fasciola Hepatica – The Liver Fluke](https://www.iaszoology.com/fasciola-hepatica/) - Fasciolahepatica is a common fluke found in the liver and bile ducts of cattle, sheep, goat, pig, rabbit, dog etc. It causes damage to the liver tissues producing liver rot in all sheep breeding areas of the world. Its life cycle is completed in two hosts, a vertebrate, the sheep and an invertebrate host, which - [Fasciola Hepatica – The Liver Fluke](https://www.iaszoology.com/fasciola-hepatica/) - Fasciolahepatica is a common fluke found in the liver and bile ducts of cattle, sheep, goat, pig, rabbit, dog etc. It causes damage to the liver tissues producing liver rot in all sheep breeding areas of the world. Its life cycle is completed in two hosts, a vertebrate, the sheep and an invertebrate host, which - [Aurelia](https://www.iaszoology.com/aurelia/) - AURELIA – The Jelly fish Jelly fishes are scyphozoans in which medusa is the dominant adult stage. The most common scyphozoan jelly fish is Aurelia aurita, which is also called moon-jelly that occurs in seas all over the world. MORPHOLOGY & ANATOMY Aurelia has inverted cup or umbrella-shaped body with a convex aboral or exumbrellar - [Obelia & Metagenesis](https://www.iaszoology.com/obelia-metagenesis/) - OBELIA – THE SEA FUR Obelia is a marine colonial trimorphic hydrozoan having polyp, medusa and blastostyle stages in its life history. It is abundant in both Atlantic and Pacific coastal waters. The small branched hydroid colony is found attached to rocks, stones, shells of animals or on large seaweeds and appears like a delicate - [Reproduction In Sponges](https://www.iaszoology.com/reproduction-sponges/) - Sponges reproduce both asexually and sexually and they also possess the power of regeneration due which it is almost impossible to kill a sponge. Their sexual reproduction is similar to higher animals even though their body organization is primitive type. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION Regeneration All sponges possess a remarkable ability to regenerate lost parts. A piece - [Status Of Parazoa](https://www.iaszoology.com/parazoa/) - Sponges were earlier thought to be plants because they are sedentary and grow asymmetrically by budding and branching. In fact bath sponges are cultivated like plants by planting their cuttings on rocks and soil in the Mediterranean region. Sponges also show no response to touching or other stimuli and have no apparent food catching - [Paramecium – The Free living Ciliate](https://www.iaszoology.com/paramecium-the-free-living-ciliate/) - ciliate protozoan - [Plasmodium](https://www.iaszoology.com/plasmodium/) - malarial parasite - [Protozoa Classification](https://www.iaszoology.com/protozoa-classification/) - STATUS OF PROTISTA The Swedish naturalist Carl von Linne, who gave us the first comprehensive classification of organisms and also the binominal nomenclature, suggested the two kingdom classification of organisms in his book, Systema Naturae, published in 1758. The two kingdoms were PLANTAE that contained organisms that possessed cell wall, chlorophyll and starch as stored - [Leishmania](https://www.iaszoology.com/leishmania/) - Leishmania causes kala-azar, oriental sore, espundia. - [Protostomes & Deuterostomes](https://www.iaszoology.com/protostomes-deuterostomes/) - On the basis of embryonic development, metazoans are divided into Protostomia and Deuterostomia. Protostomes are primitive invertebrates while deuterostomes include echinoderms and chordates. This division helps in understanding relationships of different groups of animals. PROTOSTOMES Protostomes include flat worms, annelids, arthropods, molluscs and some minor phyla. During embryonic development blastopore forms the mouth on the - [Porifera Classification](https://www.iaszoology.com/porifera-classification/) - porifera, sponges - [Non-chordata Books](https://www.iaszoology.com/books-of-non-chordata/) - BOOKS ON INVERTEBRATES Anderson, Donald Thomas. 2006. Invertebrate Zoology. Oxford Univ. Press. 476 pp. Barnes, Robert D. 1981. Invertebrate Zoology. Saunders College Publ. 1089 pages. Barnes, Richard, Barnes, R.S.K. & Calow, P. P. 2001. The Invertebrates: A Synthesis. Wiley-Blackwell. 512 pages. Brown, Frank A. 2002. Invertebrates. Daya Publishing House. 597 pp., 235 figs. Brusca, R.C. - [Camels of the World](https://www.iaszoology.com/camels-of-the-world/) - Description of the camel species. - [Brain, Mind and Meditation](https://www.iaszoology.com/meditation/) - This did not happen for over 400 million years to any of the creatures that from time to time specialized in various ways to master our planet, till about 20 million years ago in a group of monkey-like creatures somewhere in the tropics one particular organ of body started growing unusually fast. Constant directional growth - [Intelligent Body Spiritual Mind](https://www.iaszoology.com/spiritual-mind/) - Wise men said that enjoyment is merely a state of mind. Five senses which derive pleasures from the outer world, convert them to nerve impulses which bring the mind to a particular state we call enjoyment. Mind, however, can also be trained to come to that state without the help of sense organs. Human mind - [The Need For Spirituality](https://www.iaszoology.com/spirituality/) - Earnst Haeckel's famous phrase, "Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny", which means that organisms repeat their evolutionary history during their embryological development, applies equally well to the growth of the human mind from childhood to adulthood. During a life span, the human mind grows from the primitive instinctive animal form to the highly evolved superhuman spiritual form. The - [Building Up A Yogic Mind](https://www.iaszoology.com/building-up-a-yogic-mind/) - Brain is perhaps the most underestimated organ of our body and mind is the least understood. This is due to the fact that the neurological studies and scientific experimentation are based on animals in which brain is primitive and mind is rather rudimentary. Human brain is unique, functionally complex and with its billions of neurons - [Pranayama](https://www.iaszoology.com/pranayama/) - The Science of Pranayama Pranayama is not just breathing exercises but in yogic terms involves tapping and controlling subtle prana shakti, which in physical terms is variously described as vital force, bioenergy or bioplasma that flows in our body through specific channels which cannot be anatomically demonstrated. Control of Prana, the life force in our - [Thought control](https://www.iaszoology.com/thought-control/) - Yogic Control of Thoughts Brain proposes and body disposes. That is how our body functions are perceived to be controlled by brain through a network of nerves that reach out to different organs. But many lower animals like single-celled Amoeba or bacteria have no brain and yet carry out all activities and respond to stimuli - [Project Tiger](https://www.iaszoology.com/project-tiger/) - (Panthera tigris) The Project Tiger was initiated on 1st April, 1973 by the Indian Board of Wildlife in Corbett National Park. The number of tigers in 1910 was estimated to have been 40,000, which dwindled to 4,000 in 1953, 2,000 in 1964 and only 1,827 in 1972. Alarm bells rang and in 1970 a national - [Biosphere Reserves](https://www.iaszoology.com/biosphere-reserves/) - A biosphere reserve is an international conservation designation initiated by UNESCO under its Programme on Man and the Biosphere (MAB) in 1971. According to “The Statutory Framework of the World Network of Biosphere Reserves,” biosphere reserves are created “to promote and demonstrate a balanced relationship between humans and the biosphere.” Under article 4, biosphere reserves - [National Parks Of India](https://www.iaszoology.com/national-parks/) - In the 13th century, Marco Polo, in his “Book of marvels”, described India as a wondrous land filled with curious animals such as elephants, rhinos, great striped cats. Indian wildlife is very rich and varied. Many national parks were the private hunting grounds of maharajas until 1947. India's first national park was established in 1935 - [Wildlife Sanctuaries](https://www.iaszoology.com/wildlife-sanctuaries/) - The National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries of India JAMMU AND KASHMIR National Parks Area in Sq. Km. Year of Notification Dachigam 141.00 1981 Hemis 4100.00 1981 Kishtwar 310.00 1981 Sanctuaries Baltal 03.00 1987 Changthang 4000.00 1987 Gulmarg ; 186.00; 1987 Hirpora; 110.00; 1987 Hokarsar; 10.00; 1987 Kanji; 250.00; 1988 Karakoram; 1800.00; 1987 Lachipora; 800.00; 1987 - [Wildlife management & conservation](https://www.iaszoology.com/wildlife-management-conservation/) - Wildlife management is interdisciplinary that deals with protecting endangered and threatened species and subspecies and their habitats, as well as the non-threatened agricultural animals and game species. The Wildlife Management program emphasizes both applied and basic research in wildlife ecology, management, education and extension. Wildlife management takes into consideration the ecological principles such as carrying - [Wildlife Books](https://www.iaszoology.com/wildlife-books/) - Basra, G. 2004. Wildlife in India. 198 pages. Boulenger, E.G., 2004. Wild animal life of the world. 504 pages. Chadha, S.K., Conserving wildlife in India. Dhyani, S.N., Wildlife Management. (BNHS, Mumbai). Gee, E.P., 2000. The wildlife of India. (Harper Collins Publ., India), 262 pages. Grimmett, R., Inskipp, C. & Inskipp, Tim, 1998. Birds of the - [Bacterial diseases of animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/bacterial-diseases-of-animals/) - ANTHRAX Anthrax is an infectious disease caused by a bacterium called Bacillus anthracis, which can change into spores that can last for a long time in the environment before germinating. It is carried by wild and domestic animals in Asia, Africa and parts of Europe. There are two main types of anthrax. The cutaneousanthrax starts - [Protozoan diseases of animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/protozoan-diseases-of-animals/) - PIROPLASMOSIS Equine piroplasmosis is caused by the protozoan parasites Theileria equi (formerly Babesia equi) and Babesia caballi, which is approximately twice the size of T. equi. EP affects horses, donkeys, mules, and zebras and sometimes dogs. The wild zebra population is an important reservoir for the disease in Africa. Adult and nymphal ticks are capable - [Helminthic diseases of animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/helminthic-diseases-of-animals/) - TAPE WORMS The small intestinal tapeworms of major importance in sheep are Monieziaexpansa, Thysaniezia giardi, and Avitellina centripunctata. Other cestodes, such as Stilesia globipunctata and Thysanosoma actinoides occur less frequently, or only in specific regions. Stilesia hepatica parasitizes the bile ducts of sheep and other ruminants. There are three common species that affect dogs and - [Cladism](https://www.iaszoology.com/cladism/) - CLADISM (A theory of classification) Cladism is a taxonomic theory first proposed by Hennig (1950, 1966). According to this theory organisms should be ranked and classified on the basis of “recency of common descent”. Status of a taxon depends on the position of branching point on the phylogenetic tree and, therefore, recently branched taxa are considered to - [The Code of Zoological Nomenclature](https://www.iaszoology.com/the-code/) - International Code of Zoological Nomenclature (Adopted by the 15th International Congress of Zoology (London) and published on November 6, 1961) The object of the code is to promote stability and universality in the scientific name of animals, and to ensure that each name is unique and distinct. The Swedish naturalist Carl von Linne' (1707-1778), who - [Principles of Zoological Nomenclature](https://www.iaszoology.com/zoological-nomenclature/) - (Latin: nomen=name; calare=to call) Nomenclature provides names to species and higher taxa, to facilitate communication among zoologists. According to Article 1 of the code: "Zoological nomenclature is the system of scientific names applied to taxonomic units of animals (taxa) known to occur in nature, whether living or extinct." The nomenclature should fulfill the following three - [Systematics Books](https://www.iaszoology.com/systematics-books/) - Mayr, Ernst, 1969. Principles of systematic zoology. (Tata McGraw Hill Publ. Co.). 428 pages. Mayr, Ernst, 1942. Systematics and the origin of species. (Columbia Univ. Press). Mayr, E. & Ashlock, P.D., 1991. Principles of Systematic Zoology. (McGraw Hill International Edition). 475 pages. G.G. Simpson, 1961. Principles of animal taxonomy. (Columbia Univ. press). 247 pages. Mayr, - [Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM)](https://www.iaszoology.com/sem/) - The scanning electron microscope (SEM) uses a focused beam of high-energy electrons to generate a variety of signals at the surface of solid specimens. The SEM's job is to use an electron beam to trace over the object, creating an exact replica of the original object on a monitor. As the electron beam traces over - [Transmission Electron Microscope (TEM)](https://www.iaszoology.com/tem/) - In transmission electron microscope (TEM) a beam of electrons is transmitted through the section of a specimen and an image is formed by the interaction of the electrons transmitted through the specimen. The image is magnified and focused onto an imaging device, such as a fluorescent screen or a photographic film, or to the computer - [Chromosome painting](https://www.iaszoology.com/chromosome-painting/) - Chromosome painting involves the use of fluorescent-tagged chromosome specific DNA sequences to visualize specific chromosomes or chromosome segments by in situ DNA hybridization and fluorescence microscopy. Chromosome painting refers to the hybridization of fluorescently labelled chromosome-specific, composite probes to cytological preparations. Chromosome painting allows the visualization of individual chromosomes in metaphase or interphase stages and - [Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (FISH)](https://www.iaszoology.com/fish/) - FISH is a technique that is used to detect the presence of specific DNA sequences on chromosomes out of large number of fragments of similar size. It uses fluorescent probes that bind to those parts of chromosome which have similar base sequences. The detection of base sequences on a combed DNA molecule is done by - [Blotting techniques](https://www.iaszoology.com/blotting-techniques/) - WESTERN BLOT Western blot analysis is used to detect a protein in a mixture of any number of proteins while giving you information about the size of the protein. This method is, however, dependent on the use of a high-quality antibody directed against the desired protein. The antibody is used as a probe to detect - [Polymerase Chain Reaction](https://www.iaszoology.com/pcr/) - The polymerase chain reaction is a technique for cloning a particular piece or amplifying a single or few copies of a piece of DNA, generating millions or more copies of that particular DNA sequence. One can make virtually unlimited copies of a single DNA molecule even though it may initially be present in a mixture - [Gel electrophoresis](https://www.iaszoology.com/gel-electrophoresis/) - In the olden days, DNA fragments were laboriously separated by using gravity. In the 1970s, the powerful tool called DNA gel electrophoresis was developed, in which electricity was used to separate DNA fragments by size as they migrate through a porous gel matrix. Gel electrophoresis is now used to sort out strands of DNA, RNA - [Spectrophotometer](https://www.iaszoology.com/spectrophotometer/) - A spectrophotometer measures the amount of light that a sample absorbs when a beam of light is made to pass through it. The intensity of light is measured by a detector that is placed after the sample. The beam of light consists of a stream of photons that have chance of getting absorbed by the - [Amazing Insects](https://www.iaszoology.com/amazing-insects/) - INSECT ODDITIES We accept it or not but the fact remains that insects constitute three-fourth of all animals present on our planet. They are so amazingly ubiquitous that according to one estimate, their population density averages around 500 million per acre. If we do not see them frequently, it is because of their small size - [Insect Rearing](https://www.iaszoology.com/insect-rearing/) - Insects have highly varied habits and habitats. Their size ranges from a millimetre to about 12 inches long and their food and feeding habits are equally variable. Insects are known to occur in subzero temperatures to the inhospitable hot springs. Owing to such varied preferences, insects’ rearing requires specific techniques for different types of insects. - [ENDOPTERYGOTA](https://www.iaszoology.com/endopterygota/) - Division ENDOPTERYGOTA (=HOLOMETABOLA) Order COLEOPTERA (koleos=sheath; pteron=wing) (Beetles and weevils) This is the largest of insect orders having over 300,000 species in the world. They are minute to large insects, possessing heavily sclerotized bodies. Compound eyes well developed but ocelli lacking. Antennae 9-11 segmented. Mouth parts strong biting and chewing type. Fore wings heavily sclerotized, - [Apterygota](https://www.iaszoology.com/insect-orders/) - THE APTERYGOTES Order PROTURA (Protos=first; uros=tail) (Ex. Telson-tails, Acerantomon) This order includes 90 species. They are minute insects with somewhat depressed, soft white bodies, with prognathous head and without eyes. Antennae are also absent. They are primitively wingless, with reduced prothorax. Tarsus is one-segmented. Abdomen is 11-segmented, with telson (that is why called telson-tails) but - [Classification of Insects](https://www.iaszoology.com/class-insecta/) - Class INSECTA Insects are the largest group of animals, which constitute 75% of all living animals. There are more than one million living species in the world and many more yet to be discovered. They were the first flying creatures and still the only invertebrates that can fly. They are the most successful animals inhabiting - [General Entomology Books](https://www.iaszoology.com/general-entomology-books/) - O.W. Richard & R.G. Davies, 1977. IMMS’ General textbook of Entomology. Part I & II. (Chapman & Hall, London). 1354 pages. H.E. Evans, 1984. Insect biology – A textbook of Entomology. (Addison-Wesley Publ. Co.). 436 pages. R.M. Fox & J.W. Fox, 1964. Introduction to comparative entomology. (Reinhold Publ. Corp., NY). 450 pages. M.S. Mani, 1982. - [Vermiculture](https://www.iaszoology.com/vermiculture/) - Vermiculture means worm farming or culturing worms for selling them either to fishermen or to compost manufacturers. When earthworms are used for the production of compost it is called vermicomposting. Earthworms burrow through the soil and feed on decaying organic matter, excreting castings that are rich in nutrients and beneficial micro-organisms, which are about 20 - [House Mouse](https://www.iaszoology.com/house-mouse/) - MUS MUSCULUS MORPHOLOGY Musmusculus, commonly known as house mice, originated in Asia, probably in India, and then spread throughout Europe and Africa and to the rest of the world. It belongs to family Muridae. Most laboratory mice are hybrids of different sub-species, which include, Musmusculusdomesticus and Musmusculusmusculus. The long history of breeding, together with their - [Drosophila Melanogaster](https://www.iaszoology.com/drosophila/) - Drosophila melanogaster is a dipteran insect that is commonly known as the fruit fly and is one of the most commonly used model organisms in studies in genetics, physiology and evolution. The Greek term Drosophila means “dew lover" and melanogaster means "dark gut". Wild type fruit flies have brick red eyes, yellowish-brown colour and transverse - [Caenorhabditis Elegans](https://www.iaszoology.com/caenorhabditis/) - C. elegans is a vermiform and bilaterally symmetrical nematode with a cuticular integument, four main epidermal muscle cords and a fluid-filled pseudocoelom. In the wild, they feed on bacteria growing on decaying vegetable matter. They are generally hermaphrodite but occasionally males also occur. In 1960's Sydney Brenner began using it for the study of genetics - [Arabidopsis Thaliana](https://www.iaszoology.com/arabidopsis/) - Arabidopsis thaliana is a small flowering plant native to Europe, Asia, and northwestern Africa. A spring annual with a relatively short life cycle, Arabidopsis is popular as a model organism for understanding the molecular biology of plants. Its genome is one of the smallest plant genomes that was completely sequenced. Its common name is mouse-ear - [Neurospora crassa](https://www.iaszoology.com/neurospora/) - Neurospora crassa is a type of red bread mold of the phylum Ascomycota. The genus name, meaning "nerve spore" refers to the characteristic striations on the spores that resemble axons. BIOLOGY Neurospora crassa produces two kinds of spores: Conidia are spores produced by asexual reproduction, by mitosis of the haploid nuclei of the active, growing - [Saccharomyces Cerevisiae](https://www.iaszoology.com/saccharomyces/) - The word "Saccharomyces" derives from Greek term that means "sugar mold". "cerevisiae" comes from Latin word meaning "of beer".Saccharomyces cerevisiae is commonly known as "bakers yeast" or "brewers yeast". The yeast ferments sugars present in the flour or added to the dough, giving off carbon dioxide and alcohol (ethanol) to gain energy from the breakdown - [Escherichia coli](https://www.iaszoology.com/e-coli/) - BIOLOGY E.coli is facultative anaerobic Gram-negative non-sporing rod-like bacterium that ferments lactose. It is catalase positive, oxidase negative and indole positive bacillus. They can grow at a temperature ranging from 7 to 46°C and can grow at a minimum water activity of 0.95. They are fairly acid tolerant and can grow at pH values ranging - [AIDS](https://www.iaszoology.com/aids/) - AIDS stands for Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome. It is the most advanced stage of infection with the Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV) which kills or damages cells of the body's immune system. HIV most often spreads through unprotected sex with an infected person, by sharing drug needles or through contact with the blood of an infected person. - [Cholera](https://www.iaszoology.com/cholera/) - Cholera is an acute intestinal infection caused by ingestion of food or water contaminated with the bacterium Vibrio cholerae. It has a short incubation period of one to five days and produces a toxin that causes painless, watery diarrhoea and vomiting that can quickly lead to severe dehydration and death. The genus Vibrio consists of - [Malaria](https://www.iaszoology.com/malaria/) - Malaria is one of the most common infectious diseases and an enormous public health problem. The disease is caused by a protozoan parasites of the genus Plasmodium, which is usually referred to as malaria parasites. The term malaria originated from the medieval Italian term, mala aria meaning "bad air" and the disease was formerly called - [Plague](https://www.iaszoology.com/plague/) - Bubonic plague is mainly a disease of rats and rat fleas (Xenopsylla cheopis). Infection in a human occurs when a person is bitten by an infected flea. The bacteria multiply inside the stomach of flea by forming a mucilaginous plug at the entry to gizzard that blocks its passage and causes the flea to starve. - [Smallpox](https://www.iaszoology.com/smallpox/) - Smallpox, which is believed to have originated over 3,000 years ago in India or Egypt, is one of the most devastating diseases known to mankind. Smallpox killed Queen Mary II of England, Emperor Joseph I of Austria, King Luis I of Spain, Tsar Peter II of Russia, Queen Ulrika Elenora of Sweden and King Louis - [Filariasis](https://www.iaszoology.com/filariasis/) - Filariasis is an infectious tropical disease caused by three thread-like parasitic filarial worms, Wuchereria bancrofti, Brugia malayi, and Brugia timori, all transmitted by mosquitoes. Lymphatic Filariasis, known as Elephantiasis puts at risk more than a billion people in more than 80 countries. Over 120 million are already affected by and over 40 million of them - [Kala-azar](https://www.iaszoology.com/kala-azar/) - Leishmaniasis is a disease caused by the flagellate protozoan that belongs to the genus Leishmania and is transmitted by the bite of sand flies of the genus Lutzomyia in the New World and Phlebotomus in the Old World. The disease was named in 1901 after the Scottish pathologist William Boog Leishman. This disease is also - [Yellow fever](https://www.iaszoology.com/yellow-fever/) - Yellow fever is a tropical disease that is spread to humans by infected mosquitoes and is caused by the yellow fever virus. The disease is found in urban and rural areas of tropical zone countries in Africa and South America. Yellow fever has not been reported in Asia. Yellow fever is a viral disease of - [Amoebiasis](https://www.iaszoology.com/amoebiasis/) - Amoebiasis is an infection caused by the protozoan, Entamoeba histolytica, which is usually contracted by drinking water or eating food contaminated with amoebic cysts. Most of the infected people are asymptomatic but the disease has the potential to be chronic and it is estimated by WHO that about 70,000 people die annually worldwide. Symptoms that - [Tuberculosis](https://www.iaszoology.com/tuberculosis/) - Tuberculosis (TB) is an infectious disease caused by the bacterium, Mycobacteriumtuberculosi. TB most commonly affects the lungs but can involve almost any organ of the body. There is also a group of organisms referred to as atypical tuberculosis. These involve other types of bacteria of Mycobacterium family. At times, these bacteria can cause an infection - [Typhus](https://www.iaszoology.com/typhus/) - Several rickettsia species cause the disease known as epidemic typhus in humans. The disease is spread by ticks, mites, fleas, or lice, each agent having a distinct epidemiology, but all causing a disease with signs similar to a bad cold with fever lasting form one to several weeks, chills, headache, and muscle pains, as well - [Rabies](https://www.iaszoology.com/rabies/) - Rabies is a serious viral disease that affects central nervous system. It is an infectious disease of animals caused by a bullet-shaped, enveloped RNA virus, 180 x 75 nm. Man is occasionally infected and once infection is established in the central nervous system, the outcome is almost invariably fatal. Typically rabies spreads by way of - [Encephalitis](https://www.iaszoology.com/encephalitis/) - Japanese Encephalitis Japanese encephalitis is a potentially severe viral disease that is spread by infected mosquitoes in the agricultural regions of Asia. It is one of several mosquito-borne virus diseases that can affect the central nervous system and cause severe complications and death. It can be a risk to travellers to rural areas where the - [Dengue](https://www.iaszoology.com/dengue/) - Dengue Fever Dengue fever is an infectious disease carried by mosquitoes and caused by any of four related dengue viruses. This disease used to be called break-bone fever because it sometimes causes severe joint and muscle pain that feels like bones are breaking, hence the name. Health experts have known about dengue fever for more - [Prawn Culture](https://www.iaszoology.com/prawn-culture/) - The prawn production in India accounts for about 15% of the total world production of prawn and shrimps. For marine prawns, the percentage of Indian production to the world production is about 20%. The major commercial prawn species reared in India are Macrobrachium. rosenbergii and M. malcolmsonii. BIOLOGY Macrobrachiumrosenbergii, also known as the giant river - [Pearl culture](https://www.iaszoology.com/pearl-culture/) - Pearl is produced by black lip pearl oyster or pearl oyster, Pinctada margaritifera ( var. cumingii) and P. vulgaris, which grow to a size of 12-15 cm after 3 years of culture. Pearl oysters occur throughout the Indo-Pacific Region. They have been fished for almost two centuries for the mother-of-pearl industry and fine pearls were - [Economic Zoology Books](https://www.iaszoology.com/economic-zoology-books/) - Biswas, K.P. 2004. Industrial Fisheries. Daya Publishing House. xvi+376p., figs., tables. Chakrabarti, N.M. 1998. Biology, Culture and Production of Indian Major Carps: A Review. Vedams Books (P) Ltd. 175 p., tables, photos, figs. Chakraborty, C. & Sadhu, A. K. 2000. Biology Hatchery and Culture Technology of Tiger Prawn and Giant Freshwater Prawn. Daya Publishing House. - [Stomoxys calcitrans (The Stable fly)](https://www.iaszoology.com/stomoxys/) - The stable flies look like over-sized houseflies, which are 6.5 mm long, greyish-brown with dark markings and short checkered abdomen. Both sexes suck blood of mammals. Mouth parts are piercing and sucking type and prominent. When at rest wings are kept at an angle. Average life span is about 20 days with a maximum of - [Tabanus (The Horsefly)](https://www.iaszoology.com/tabanus/) - Tabanus quinquevittatus T. striatus T. atratus T. rubidus Horseflies are moderately sized, heavy bodied insects, 6-20 mm long with cloudy wings and large banded eyes. Females have strong, blade-like, piercing and sucking mouthparts for sucking blood of animals but males do not feed on blood but feed on vegetable material or nectar. Thorax is pubescent, - [Ticks and Mites](https://www.iaszoology.com/ticks-and-mites/) - TICKS Boophilus annulatus Ixodes ricinus Hyalomma detritum Haemaphysalis bispinosa Amblyomma variegatum Ticks are vectors of cattle fever, tick fever and several other pathogens that cause enlargement of spleen and discoloration of urine. Ticks are generally whitish to bluish-gray in colour with oval body wrapped in a tough and wrinkled skin. They prefer to suck blood - [The Apes](https://www.iaszoology.com/the-apes/) - GIBBONS There are 12 living gibbon species, whose coloration range from cream to brown, gray and black. In some species the males and females have a sex-specific coloration. The color of infants of some species is different from the adults. The species are categorized in 4 subgenera: Nomascus, Symphalangus, Hoolock, and Hylobates. Native to the - [Viral diseases of animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/viral-diseases-of-animals/) - diseases of animals - [Fleas (Siphonaptera)](https://www.iaszoology.com/fleas-siphonaptera/) - Fleas are small wingless insects, 2-3 mm long, with highly sclerotised, laterally compressed bodies and reddish-brown colour. Antennae short, stout, pectinate or clubbed and concealed in a groove. Mouth parts are modified for piercing and sucking. Legs adapted for clinging with curved claws. Hind leg longer, modified for jumping. Body bears backwardly directed spines that - [Hormonal Control Of Insects](https://www.iaszoology.com/hormonal-control-of-insects/) - The hormonal control of insect metamorphosis was shown by Wigglesworth (1934), who studied Rhodnius prolixus, a blood-sucking bug that has five instars. When the 1st instar larva of Rhodnius was decapitated and fused with the 5th instar larva, the minute first instar developed the cuticle, body structure, and genitalia of the adult. Wigglesworth also showed - [Theories of Distribution](https://www.iaszoology.com/theories/) - Several theories have been put forward to explain how and why animals spread from their place of origin to where they are now found, sometimes travelling thousands of kilometres and crossing barriers in the process. Theory of continental drift and existence of corridors and filter bridges between two land masses also explain distribution of animals - [Means of dispersal](https://www.iaszoology.com/means/) - All animals do not spread across the sea or other barriers with the same speed, some spread faster and others slowly and some do not cross the barriers at all. Therefore, distribution also depends on the animal’s body size, psychology, reproductive rate, locomotory organs, physiological endurance and some means to carry them to long distances - [Origin of Reptiles](https://www.iaszoology.com/origin-of-reptiles/) - ORIGIN & EVOLUTION OF REPTILES Reptiles evolved from amphibians of Carboniferous period, which depended on water bodies for laying eggs and development of larval stages and hence could not exploit arid habitats far away from water bodies. They invented a large yolk-laden shelled egg that could be laid on land and in which an amniotic - [Origin of Tetrapods (Amphibia)](https://www.iaszoology.com/origin-of-tetrapods/) - The first tetrapods were amphibians that evolved from the Devonian crossopterygian fishes which lived in shallow marshy locations and already possessed lungs for respiration and lobed fins to support their bodies on muddy banks of ponds, rivers and marshland. The anatomical changes that took place during transformation from fishes to amphibia were as follows: A - [Selection coefficient](https://www.iaszoology.com/selection-coefficient/) - Coefficient of Selection A large and randomly mating population possesses high degree of variability at all times and the number of genetic recombinations on which natural selection operates is virtually unlimited. In existing environmental conditions such a population is well adapted but new phenotypes keep appearing from the new genetic combinations, some of which have - [Molecular evolution](https://www.iaszoology.com/molecular-evolution/) - Changes in the base pair sequences in DNA or RNA molecules and changes in amino acid sequences and their molecular configuration in different proteins, from generation to generation are known as molecular evolution. It is possible to measure differences between these molecules obtained from different organisms (such as humans, apes, monkeys, prosimians etc.) on a - [KIN SELECTION & ALTRUISM](https://www.iaszoology.com/kin-selection-altruism/) - There are four possible types of interactions among individuals living together in a population. First, cooperation or mutualism, in which both the participants gain from the act as in the nest building by both male and female birds, or cooperation in the colony of social insects or group hunting in wild dogs and lions or - [Balanced polymorphism](https://www.iaszoology.com/balanced-polymorphism/) - many forms of the same species existing in a population. - [Anagenesis & Cladogenesis](https://www.iaszoology.com/anagenesis-cladogenesis/) - ANAGENESIS - (The Progressive Evolution) Series of fossils in various taxa suggest that phyletic lines begin as primitive types during evolution and end up at higher level through progressive evolution. Although lower forms may have been perfectly adapted to their specific habitats, higher forms show increased complexity of organs and adaptiveness achieved through consistent natural - [Horse evolution](https://www.iaszoology.com/horse-evolution/) - Evolution of horse dates back to Eocene epoch, about 60 million years ago. Primary center of evolution were Great Plains of North America, from where species migrated to Europe and Asia from time to time. For some reasons horses became extinct in North America by the end of Pleistocene epoch but their offshoots in Europe - [Speciation](https://www.iaszoology.com/speciation/) - Speciation is the evolution of a new species from the pre-existing one by gradual modification. Since species are reproductively isolated populations, creation of a new species demands a mechanism that will produce reproductive isolation between two populations. Speciation can be classified into two categories as follows: Convergent speciation: Two species that have not developed enough reproductive - [Isolation](https://www.iaszoology.com/isolation/) - Isolation, in evolutionary term, means segregation of different populations into smaller units by certain mechanism so as to prevent interbreeding among individuals. 1. Geographical isolation When the populations are separated by a geographical barrier, such as river, sea, mountain, deserts and for aquatic animals land, they are physically prevented from interbreeding. Such populations are termed - [Hardy-Weinberg's Law](https://www.iaszoology.com/hardy-weinbergs-law/) - Genetic Equilibrium (Hardy-Weinberg’s Law) Fundamental ideas about population genetics were published independently in 1908 by G.H. Hardy in England and W. Weinberg in Germany. At that time it was thought that alleles of a gene would distribute in 3:1 ratio in F1 generation. But it is now known that heterozygotes appear in much higher frequencies - [Types of Natural Selection](https://www.iaszoology.com/types-of-selection/) - Natural selection is that force which produces systematic heritable changes in a population from generation to generation, creating evolution. Thus it may become a directional phenomenon, producing changes in a definite direction, giving rise to new species. Natural selection may be very fast or very slow depending upon the environmental demands and rate of genetic - [Origin of life](https://www.iaszoology.com/origin-of-life/) - How life originated on earth has been a mystery for mankind. While common man generally believes that God created life, scientists believe that life could have been created by natural means. In the following discussion, we shall be assessing some of these theories. Theory of special creation Religions preach that life was created by God - [Aquatic Mammals](https://www.iaszoology.com/aquatic-mammals/) - BLUE WHALE Balaenoptera musculus musculus (Northern blue whale: N. Atlantic, N. Pacific) Balaenoptera musculus intermedia(Antarctic or Southern blue whale: S. Ocean) Baleanoptera musculusindica (Indian Ocean blue whale: Indian Ocean) Balaenoptera musculusbrevicauda (pygmy blue whale - which reaches an impressive 24 m, as big as a fin whale) Other common names for the Blue Whale are: - [Origin of mammals](https://www.iaszoology.com/origin-of-mammals/) - ORIGIN & EVOLUTION OF MAMMALS Mammals originated from reptiles but the fossils show that the reptiles that gave rise to mammals were Synapsids that diverged from the main reptilian stock almost at the base of phylogeny during Permian period. Hence, mammalian relationship with the extant reptiles is remote. Sailbacks or Pelycosaurs from North America and Russia were - [Sphenodon, The Living Fossil](https://www.iaszoology.com/sphenodon/) - (Order Rhynchocephalia) Albert Günther (1867) of the British Museum proposed the order name Rhynchocephalia, meaning “beak headed” for the tuatara and its fossil relatives. The common name "tuatara" is derived from the Maori language, which means "peaks on the back". Tuatara have been referred to as living fossils, which is a term used for - [Fish Migration](https://www.iaszoology.com/fish-migration/) - Migration is the movement of large number of animals from one place to another for feeding, reproduction or to escape weather extremes. When large numbers of fishes come together and move socially it is called shoaling. But sometimes migrating fishes exhibit high degree of coordination in their movements and carry out synchronized manoeuvres to produce - [Fish Migration](https://www.iaszoology.com/fish-migration/) - Migration is the movement of large number of animals from one place to another for feeding, reproduction or to escape weather extremes. When large numbers of fishes come together and move socially it is called shoaling. But sometimes migrating fishes exhibit high degree of coordination in their movements and carry out synchronized manoeuvres to produce - [Fish locomotion](https://www.iaszoology.com/fish-locomotion/) - SWIMMING IN FISHES Swimming is the most economical form of animal locomotion because the body of aquatic animals is supported by water and hence the animals do not have to spend energy to counter gravity. While a squirrel spends 5.43 kcal for walking and a gull spends 1.45 kcal for flying, a salmon spends only - [Fish classification](https://www.iaszoology.com/fish-classification/) - Fishes have been classified in different ways from time to time. Earliest classification was proposed by J. Muller (1844) who proposed 7 subclasses in class Pisces. Muller’s classification (1844) Class PISCES Subclasses: DIPNOI (Lung fishes); TELEOSTEI (Bony fishes); GANOIDEI (Polypterus, Amia, Lepidosteus); ELASMOBRANCHI (Cartilagenous fishes); MARSIPOBRANCHI (Cyclostomes); LEPTOCARDII (Amphioxus). Berg’s classification (1940) Series PISCES Class - [Cephalochordata](https://www.iaszoology.com/cephalochordata/) - Cephalochordata may be the most primitive subphylum of chordates and the sister group of the vertebrates. However, recent molecular studies (Benton 2005) place cephalochordates near the vertebrates and most authors also regard Amphioxus as the closest relative of Vertebrates. With about 25 species inhabiting shallow tropical and temperate oceans, Cephalochordata are a small branch of - [Balanoglossus – The Acorn worm](https://www.iaszoology.com/balanoglossus/) - They are worm-like animals which live an obscure life under stones and burrow in the sand by inflation of the collar and proboscis, progression is effected with marvellous rapidity. Like earthworm it burrows in the sand, which is ingested and is passed through the intestine, the exhausted sand being finally ejected through anus at the - [Asterias – The Star Fish](https://www.iaszoology.com/asterias/) - Starfish or Asterias is an echinoderm with pentamerous symmetry. Its anatomy and life cycle is described. - [Torsion & Detorsion In Gastropoda](https://www.iaszoology.com/torsion/) - Torsion and detorsion in gastropoda is described with examples. - [UNIO (=LAMELLIDENS) – THE FRESHWATER MUSSEL](https://www.iaszoology.com/unio/) - Unio is a bivalve mollusc that inhabits freshwater rivers and ponds and lakes. It burrows in a furrow in sand with the help of a hatchet-shaped foot, keeping the inhalant and exhalent siphons above the sandy surface for maintaining a current of water. It is a filter feeder of planktons which are trapped by the - [Classification of Mollusca](https://www.iaszoology.com/classification-of-mollusca/) - Classification of Mollusca up to subclasses and orders and examples. - [Classification Of Annelida](https://www.iaszoology.com/annelida-classification/) - Phylum ANNELIDA Annelids are vermiform, bilaterally symmetrical, triploblastic and schizocoelomate animals whose body is metamerically segmented and covered with a layer of cuticle. Body bears segmentally arranged setae or chetae. Acron is divided into prostomium and peristomeum and the posterior terminal segment is called pygidium. Blood vascular system is closed type and a respiratory pigment - [Human nematode parasites](https://www.iaszoology.com/human-nematode-parasites/) - NEMATODE PARASITES OF MAN Nematodes are helminths that are elongated, wormiform, pseudocoelomates and are commonly known as roundworms because of their cylindrical body, which is different from other helminths that are flat worms. They are very common and widely distributed free living as well as parasitic animals. Parasitic nematodes are found in a variety of - [Wuchereria Bancrofti - The Filarial Worm](https://www.iaszoology.com/wuchereria/) - The generic name of this worm is named after Wucherer who first reported it in1866. The species name is after Bancroft who discovered the adult females in human lymph in 1876. This worm causes filariasis or elephantiasis in human beings. Another related genus Brugia malayi causes filariasis in Malayan Region. The life cycle of this - [Nemathelminthes Classification](https://www.iaszoology.com/nemathelminthes-classification/) - CLASSIFICATION OF NEMATHELMINTHES Superphylum ASCHELMINTHES Superphylum Aschelminthes was proposed by Grobben in 1910 and was later supported by Hyman in 1951. It includes pseudocoelomate or blastocoelomate phyla, which possess a false coelom or pseudocoelom. Majority of them are free living, freshwater or marine animals. They possess only longitudinal muscles, and digestive system is in a - [Nemathelminthes Classification](https://www.iaszoology.com/nemathelminthes-classification/) - CLASSIFICATION OF NEMATHELMINTHES Superphylum ASCHELMINTHES Superphylum Aschelminthes was proposed by Grobben in 1910 and was later supported by Hyman in 1951. It includes pseudocoelomate or blastocoelomate phyla, which possess a false coelom or pseudocoelom. Majority of them are free living, freshwater or marine animals. They possess only longitudinal muscles, and digestive system is in a - [Nemathelminthes Classification](https://www.iaszoology.com/nemathelminthes-classification/) - CLASSIFICATION OF NEMATHELMINTHES Superphylum ASCHELMINTHES Superphylum Aschelminthes was proposed by Grobben in 1910 and was later supported by Hyman in 1951. It includes pseudocoelomate or blastocoelomate phyla, which possess a false coelom or pseudocoelom. Majority of them are free living, freshwater or marine animals. They possess only longitudinal muscles, and digestive system is in a - [Human flatworms](https://www.iaszoology.com/human-flatworms/) - FLAT WORMS IN HUMANS FLUKE PARASITES Blood flukes – Schistosoma haematobium; S. mansoni; S. japonica; S. indicum This is a dioecious fluke that occurs in tropical and subtropical areas of the world. The adults are found in portal and pelvic veins of man. Female is thin while male is broad, 6-10 mm long and has - [Platyhelminthes classification](https://www.iaszoology.com/platyhelminthes-classification/) - CLASSIFICATION OF PLATYHELMINTHES PHYLUM PLATYHELMINTHES Commonly known as flat worms, they are acoelomate, triploblastic and bilaterally symmetrical animals which have no skeleton, respiratory and circulatory systems. Alimentary canal when present is in blind sac plan. They are unsegmented and soft-bodied invertebrate animals having flattened shapes that help in diffusion of oxygen and nutrients through their - [Metamerism](https://www.iaszoology.com/metamerism/) - Metamerism is segmentation of body into somites or metameres. Pseudometamerism occurs in cestodes in which every segment is independent of the other and contains complete set of organs that have no connection with organs in other segments. During growth new segments are added in front, in the neck region and hence the posterior-most body segment - [Coelom](https://www.iaszoology.com/coelom/) - A coelom (Greek: coel = hollow cavity) is a fluid-filled cavity between the alimentary canal and the body wall lined on all sides by mesoderm. The peritoneal cavity in our abdomen is one part of our coelom and there are similar spaces around our heart and lungs. However, the type of coelom (or even its - [Bilateria/Radiata](https://www.iaszoology.com/bilateriaradiata/) - Hatschek (1881-1891) divided Eumetazoa into two groups, namely, Radiata and Bilateria depending on the symmetry they possess, the former includes coelenterates and ctenophores and the latter includes all phyla from helminths to chordates. It is universally believed that the first metazoans were radially symmetrical, and bilateral symmetry evolved later owing to the creeping habit acquired - [Symmetry](https://www.iaszoology.com/symmetry/) - Arrangement of body parts in a balanced geometrical design, divisible into equal parts by lines or planes of division is called symmetry. Asymmetrical animals such as Amoeba or sponges possess irregular body shapes and hence have no symmetry but higher metazoans possess some kind of symmetry depending on their habits and habitats that balances their - [Coral Reefs](https://www.iaszoology.com/coral-reefs/) - Coral animals or corals are marine, mostly colonial polyploid coelenterates, looking like miniature sea anemones and living in a skeleton of their own. Their calcareous or horny skeleton is also commonly known as coral. The coral colony grows continuously in size by budding of the polyp and often forms coral reefs and coral islands. According - [Coral Reefs](https://www.iaszoology.com/coral-reefs/) - Coral animals or corals are marine, mostly colonial polyploid coelenterates, looking like miniature sea anemones and living in a skeleton of their own. Their calcareous or horny skeleton is also commonly known as coral. The coral colony grows continuously in size by budding of the polyp and often forms coral reefs and coral islands. According - [Nematocysts – The Stinging Cells](https://www.iaszoology.com/nematocysts/) - Nematocysts (Gr. Nema = thread + kystis = bladder) are specialized stinging cells specific to Coelenterates that act as organs of offence and defense. They are also called Cnidae and hence the coelenterates are also called Cnidarians. The cells that produce nematocysts are called nematoblasts. STRUCTURE Nematocysts are cell organelles found in specialized cells called - [Polymorphism in Coelenterata](https://www.iaszoology.com/polymorphism-in-coelenterata/) - The occurrence of more than one type of structurally and functionally different individuals within a population is called polymorphism. The class Hydrozoa of phylum Coelenterata includes a large number of colonial species that contain more than one form of individuals which are called zooids Coelenterates have two basic zooids, polyp and medusa. All other types - [Canal system](https://www.iaszoology.com/canal-system/) - CANAL SYSTEM IN SPONGES Body of all sponges is the perforated by large number of apertures through which water enters Inside body and flows through a system of criss-crossing canals collectively forming the canal system which is a characteristic feature of poriferans. Following types of canal systems are found in sponges: Ascon type, with flagellated - [Skeleton in sponges](https://www.iaszoology.com/skeleton-in-sponges/) - SKELETAL STRUCTURES IN PORIFERA Skeletal structures of sponges are spicules and spongin fibres. Spicules are formed by carbonates of lime or silica in the form of needle like pieces. Spongin fibres are composed of a silk-like scleroprotein. SPICULES The spicules constitute major part of skeletal system, which are secreted by special mesenchymal cells called scleroblasts. - [Plasmids](https://www.iaszoology.com/the-plasmids/) - The term plasmid was first introduced by the American molecular biologist JoshuaLederberg in 1952. Plasmid is an extra chromosomal DNA molecule that is capable of replicating independently from the chromosomal DNA and is generally circular and double-stranded. Plasmids occur naturally in bacteria and in some eukaryotic organisms, and their size varies from 1 to over - [Technique Of Microtomy](https://www.iaszoology.com/microtomy/) - Dissect open the animal and collect the tissues in mammalian Ringer Solution in a petri dish. Cut the tissues into small pieces. Flush the tissues like stomach, intestine etc. with saline water using a dropper. Press the glandular tissues like seminal vesicles, prostate gland etc. between two thick filter papers to remove the oily secretions. - [Genetic control of pests](https://www.iaszoology.com/genetic-control/) - Genetic control involves manipulation of genetic material of a pest species so as to confer lethality on the species. It is also called autocidal control. Inherited Sterility Inherited sterility is an approach to the genetic manipulation of a pest population in which the reared and released insects are fertile but their progenies are sterile. This - [Genetic control of pests](https://www.iaszoology.com/genetic-control/) - Genetic control involves manipulation of genetic material of a pest species so as to confer lethality on the species. It is also called autocidal control. Inherited Sterility Inherited sterility is an approach to the genetic manipulation of a pest population in which the reared and released insects are fertile but their progenies are sterile. This - [Cultural control of pests](https://www.iaszoology.com/cultural-control/) - Cultural control includes such methods of planting, growing and harvesting crops, which will reduce crop damage. Slight modification in the crop rotation, weed control, disposal of crop remnants, resistant varieties, time of planting and harvesting may prove important in combating some insect pests. Control by cultural means can be achieved by the following methods: 1. By resistant varieties: - [Mechanical & Physical control of Pests](https://www.iaszoology.com/mechanical-physical-control/) - Destruction of the pest by mechanical means such as burning, trapping, protective screens and barriers or use of temperature and humidity is often useful. 1. HANDPICKING: When the infestation is low, the pest is conspicuous and labor is cheap, the pest stages can be destroyed by mechanical means. Eggs of grasshoppers can be destroyed by - [Tsetse fly](https://www.iaszoology.com/tsetse-fly/) - Tsetse fly belongs to genus Glossina of family Glossinidae and is pronounced tse-tse or teet-see or set-see. They are large biting flies found in Africa that suck blood of vertebrates and transmit several protozoan diseases. Tsetse flies are similar to other large flies but can be distinguished as they fold their wings completely when at - [Sandfly](https://www.iaszoology.com/sandfly/) - (Diptera: Psychodidae) There are about 33 species of sand flies in India, some of which are known to transmit diseases. They are smaller than mosquitoes. Wings are rhomboidal in shape, narrow at both ends; hairy and held vertically up over the abdomen. Wing venation is characteristic of sand flies having 8 longitudinal veins. They move - [Mosquito, (Culex, Aedes and Anopheles)](https://www.iaszoology.com/mosquito/) - (Diptera: Culicidae) There are over 3000 species of mosquitoes in the world which are distributed from the tropics to the altitude of 4300 meters. They are also found 1160 meters below the sea level in the gold mines in south India. They are virtually distributed everywhere except in Iceland and poles. Disease transmission Mosquito species - [Lice, Human Louse](https://www.iaszoology.com/lice/) - (Pediculus humanus) DISEASES TRANSMITTED BY LICE 1. Epidemic typhus: This disease is caused by a PPLO, Ricketsia prowazeki, which multiplies in the gut of lice. Spores are released through faeces within 5 days of infection and can remain viable for 4 months in the dry conditions. They get into the human system through contact with - [House flies](https://www.iaszoology.com/house-flies/) - (Musca domestica and Musca vicina) House fly is larger insect, 6-7 mm long, greyish with blackish markings and with a wing span of 13-15 mm and having two wings, posterior wings modified in a pair of halteres or balancers. Wings when folded over the abdomen at rest diverge posteriorly. Mouth parts are sponging type or - [Bed bugs](https://www.iaszoology.com/bed-bugs/) - (Cimex lectularis; Cimex hemipterus) Cimex lectularis is found in temperate countries while Cimex hemipterus (=C. rotundatus) occurs in tropical countries. Bed bugs are not known to transmit any disease, although they are suspected to be vectors of kala-azar and relapsing fever. Body is reddish-brown, dorsoventrally flattened. Proboscis is segmented and is used for piercing the - [Household Insects](https://www.iaszoology.com/house-insects/) - ANTS Small red ants: Monomorium destructor; M. criniceps; M. gracillinum; M. indicum Large black ants: Camponotus compressus Red odoriferous ants: Myrmecaria brunnea Safari ants: Dorylus labiatus Ants eat and carry food material and create nuisance in the kitchen and house where they crawl in the eatables and other items of use. Some species also leave formic - [Locusts](https://www.iaszoology.com/locusts/) - (Orthoptera: Acrididae) Locusts are those species of grasshoppers which under certain favourable circumstances congregate and move together in the nymphal and adult stages and then fly in swarms of dense masses to distant areas, causing immense destruction to the vegetation on the way. The word Locust literarily means “plague”, indicating the high destructive capabilities of - [Termites](https://www.iaszoology.com/termites/) - (Insecta: Isoptera) Termites are small to medium sized, soft bodied insects that very in colour from pale-white to dark brown. They are commonly known as white ants, which are considered to be the most destructive insects to our crops, forests, orchards, timber and houses, a title received by them due to their wood-feeding habit. They - [Ephestia cautella, Tropical Warehouse Moth - The Fig moth](https://www.iaszoology.com/ephestia-cautella/) - (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Synonym: Cadra cautella. Host: This pest attacks a variety of stored products that include rice, wheat, maize, beans, cotton seeds and cotton cake, flour, bran, oat meal and maize-meal, dry fruits such as fig, almond, raisins, dates, pears, ground nuts, walnuts etc. and confectionary items like biscuits and chocolates. Damage: Caterpillars produce a lot - [Callosobruchus chinensis, The Pulse Beetle](https://www.iaszoology.com/callosobruchus-chinensis/) - Cowpea Bruchid (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) Synonyms: Bruchus chinesis; Pachymerus chinensis. Hosts: A pest of pulses, cowpea, soybean, gram, pigeon pea, lablab etc. Damage: Both larvae and adults cause damage to the grains. They bite holes in the grains to enter inside and feed on kernel, damaging several grains in the process. As the beetles can actively fly, - [Trogoderma granarium, The Khapra beetle](https://www.iaszoology.com/trogoderma-granarium/) - (Coleoptera: Dermestidae) Host: Serious pest of stored wheat, groundnut and other grains, such as maize, rice, oat, jowar and occasionally pulses. Damage: Both adult and larva cause damage to the grains by chewing a hole and eating up kernel. Larvae also leave cast skin in the grains, reducing their marketability. Life Cycle: This is one of the - [Corcyra cephalonica, The Rice Moth](https://www.iaszoology.com/corcyra-cephalonica/) - (Lepidoptera: Galleriidae) Host: A pest of stored rice, millets and other cereals. Prefers broken grains and flour. Damage: Caterpillars cause the damage by webbing together grains and forming lump and feed from inside it. Larvae before pupation wander about and leave a lot of webbing in the grains, causing excessive lumping, which reduces marketing quality - [Sitophilus oryzae, The Rice Weevil](https://www.iaszoology.com/sitophilus-oryzae/) - (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) Synonym: Calandra oryzae. Host: This is primarily a pest of rice but occasionally attacks wheat, corn, jowar, flour, beans, dry fruits and biscuits. Damage: Larva as well as the adult cause damage to grains. Larvae feed inside the seed and make in hollow and exit by making a circular hole on the surface. Adults - [Leptocorisa acuta, Rice earhead bug, Paddy stink bug](https://www.iaszoology.com/leptocorisa-acuta/) - (Hemiptera: Coreidae) Host:This pest feeds on a variety of graminaceous plants, e.g. rice, wheat, sugarcane, maize, millets, bajra etc. Flowering rice is the preferred host. Damage: The pest immigrates in the crop in the flowering stage and feeds on the milky grains and on the sap of the peduncle and leaves. Yellow spots appear on - [Leptocorisa acuta, Rice earhead bug, Paddy stink bug](https://www.iaszoology.com/leptocorisa-acuta/) - (Hemiptera: Coreidae) Host:This pest feeds on a variety of graminaceous plants, e.g. rice, wheat, sugarcane, maize, millets, bajra etc. Flowering rice is the preferred host. Damage: The pest immigrates in the crop in the flowering stage and feeds on the milky grains and on the sap of the peduncle and leaves. Yellow spots appear on - [Leptocorisa acuta, Rice earhead bug, Paddy stink bug](https://www.iaszoology.com/leptocorisa-acuta/) - (Hemiptera: Coreidae) Host:This pest feeds on a variety of graminaceous plants, e.g. rice, wheat, sugarcane, maize, millets, bajra etc. Flowering rice is the preferred host. Damage: The pest immigrates in the crop in the flowering stage and feeds on the milky grains and on the sap of the peduncle and leaves. Yellow spots appear on - [Tryporyza incertulas, The Yellow Stem borer](https://www.iaszoology.com/tryporyza-incertulas/) - (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) Host: This is primarily a pest of rice but also has been recorded to feed on maize and some wild grasses. Damage: The larva feeds inside the stem and makes gallery causing dead heart in younger plants. The flowering plants show white head, i.e. panicles dry up and become whitish in colour. One - [Pests of Agriculture](https://www.iaszoology.com/pests-of-agriculture/) - CROP PESTS A large number of insects attack crops in various stages of growth and cause immense economic losses. Some of them are host specific while others are polyphagous and can migrate from one crop to another. Owing to their immense capabilities to destroy crops, these pests must be studied in detail and their control - [American marsupials](https://www.iaszoology.com/american-marsupials/) - THE NEW WORLD MARSUPIALS There are some 250 species of living marsupials in the world and more than 150 fossil species are known. South American didelphoids radiated widely as carnivores and omnivores and some species in the past reached the size of a panther, e.g. Prothylacynus and the sabertooth, Thylacosmilus atrox, which was remarkably similar - [Fauna of Oriental Region](https://www.iaszoology.com/oriental-region/) - This region includes Indian subcontinent, southern China south of 30o latitude, Malaya, Philippines and Indonesian islands up to Wallace’s Line. There are rainforests in the east, high mountains in the north and the western part is arid. Along the south-western coast there is a forested low mountainous belt. Mammals. There are 30 families of mammals - [Fauna of Palaearctic Region](https://www.iaszoology.com/palaearctic/) - This region includes Europe, Russia up to pacific coast and Mediterranean up to Sahara. Climate is temperate and polar in the north. Eastern Asia is temperate with deciduous forests. In northern zone there are grasslands (steppe) and interior portion is arid. Mammals. There are 33 families of land mammals. Animals of word-wide distribution which amounts - [Fauna of Neotropical Region](https://www.iaszoology.com/neotropical/) - South America, most of Mexico, West Indies, Caribbean islands. Mostly tropical but the southern part extends into temperate zone. Rain forests on the western side. Grasslands in the middle in Argentina. Andes mountain on the western coast. Mammals. There are 32 families of mammals of which 16 are unique. Widely distributed animals are shrews, rabbits, - [Fauna of Neotropical Region](https://www.iaszoology.com/neotropical/) - South America, most of Mexico, West Indies, Caribbean islands. Mostly tropical but the southern part extends into temperate zone. Rain forests on the western side. Grasslands in the middle in Argentina. Andes mountain on the western coast. Mammals. There are 32 families of mammals of which 16 are unique. Widely distributed animals are shrews, rabbits, - [Fauna of Nearctic Region](https://www.iaszoology.com/nearctic/) - This region includes the north American continent up to the middle of Mexico. Climate is temperate with an arctic edge. There are grasslands in the middle of the continent. Western part is arid with mountains and coniferous forests. Mammals. There are 24 families of land mammals. Endemic mammals include rodents, pocket mice (Heteromyidae), pocket gophers - [Fauna of Australian Region](https://www.iaszoology.com/australian/) - This region includes Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, New Zealand and islands east of Wallace’s Line. New Guinea is tropical with rain forests. Eastern Australia is covered with lush green forests, Western Australia is desert and there are grasslands in the middle. Mammals. Eight of the 9 families of marsupials are unique. There are 52 genera - [Fauna of Australian Region](https://www.iaszoology.com/australian/) - This region includes Australia, Tasmania, New Guinea, New Zealand and islands east of Wallace’s Line. New Guinea is tropical with rain forests. Eastern Australia is covered with lush green forests, Western Australia is desert and there are grasslands in the middle. Mammals. Eight of the 9 families of marsupials are unique. There are 52 genera - [Fauna of African Region](https://www.iaszoology.com/african/) - This region includes continental Africa south of Sahara desert. This is mainly a tropical region having evergreen forests and grasslands in the central and eastern parts. There is desert in the north. Mammals. There are 38 families of mammals, out of which 12 are exclusive and the rest are shared with Neotropical and Oriental Regions. - [Fauna of African Region](https://www.iaszoology.com/african/) - This region includes continental Africa south of Sahara desert. This is mainly a tropical region having evergreen forests and grasslands in the central and eastern parts. There is desert in the north. Mammals. There are 38 families of mammals, out of which 12 are exclusive and the rest are shared with Neotropical and Oriental Regions. - [Island life, Insular Fauna](https://www.iaszoology.com/island-life/) - Islands surrounded by vast stretches of sea support unique fauna depending upon the location of the island and its history of connection and separation from the mainland. Based upon the geography and history of the islands, they can be grouped into two categories, namely, Continental islands and oceanic islands. 1. ContinentalIslands. They are located in - [Wallace’s Line, Weber’s Line and Wallacea](https://www.iaszoology.com/wallacea/) - Land masses of the Oriental and Australian Regions are separated by several strings of islands and therefore it is difficult to draw a line separating the two regions distinctly. Wallace (1860) suggested a line running between Bali and Lumbok; Borneo and Celebes and between Philippines and Sangi and Talaud. Huxley named it Wallace’s Line. The - [Types of distribution of animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/distribution-types/) - Animals are not uniformly distributed on land and in freshwater. They are restricted to certain places by several factors such as climate, food, shelter, flora and fauna etc. Generally distribution can be classified into three categories, namely, Continuous, Discontinuous and Bipolar distribution. 1. Continuous distribution. Eurytopic or wide-ranging animals are adapted to a wide variety - [ZOOGEOGRAPHICAL REALMS](https://www.iaszoology.com/regions/) - Sclater (1857) was the first one to give concepts of zoogeography and divided the continental masses into six Realms based on his studies on the bird fauna under two Creatio or centres of Creation, namely, Palaeogeana (Old world) and Neogeana (New world). Creatio PALAEOGEANA (Old World) Realms PALAEARCTIC (Temperate Eurasia) AETHIOPIAN (West Paleotropic). Africa. INDIAN - [Zoogeography Books](https://www.iaszoology.com/zoogeography-books/) - P.J. Darlington, 1957. The zoogeography: The geographical distribution of animals. Wiley Publ. New York. 675 pages. Krieger Pub. Co. (June 1980). Wilma George, 1962. Animal geography. Heinemann Edu. Books Ltd. 142 pages. John C. Briggs, 1974. Marine Zoogeography (Population Biology). Frank Evers Beddard, 2008. A Text-Book of Zoogeography. Published by BiblioBazaar, LLC, 2008. 192 pages. - [Factors Affecting Dispersal Of Animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/factors/) - SUMMARY There are four main factors due to which animals and plants are prevented from spreading to every possible area. 1. Climate. Animals are adapted to a combination of temperature and humidity that is affected by rainfall. Lower temperature prevents majority of reptiles from migrating northwards into the temperate areas. Polar bear, penguins and a - [TETRAPOD LIMBS AND THEIR ADAPTATIONS](https://www.iaszoology.com/tetrapod-limbs/) - Tetrapod limbs are believed to have evolved from the pectoral and pelvic fins of lobed fin fishes. Limbs are much stronger than fins since on land body weight has to be lifted against gravity for locomotion, whereas in water body is supported by water and limbs have to just propel the body forward. A TYPICAL - [Fish Fins](https://www.iaszoology.com/fish-fins/) - LOCOMOTORY ORGANS OF FISH - FINS Fins are locomotory organs of fishes that propel, steer and turn the body in water which is a viscous medium when compared to terrestrial situations. Fishes possess two pairs of paired fins, namely, pectoral and pelvic which are used for steering, braking, balancing and pitching. Caudal fin propels the - [Vertebral Column](https://www.iaszoology.com/vertebral-column/) - Vertebral column is part of the axial skeleton that supports the body weight and balances the body on its axis. Primitive chordates had a single rod-like notochord as axial skeleton but in later groups a vertebral column consisting of a series of vertebrae replaced it, increasing flexibility and bending of body possible. TYPICAL VERTEBRA A - [JAW SUSPENSION IN VERTEBRATES](https://www.iaszoology.com/jaw-suspension/) - Attachment of jaws with the skull. - [Visceral Arches](https://www.iaszoology.com/visceral-arches/) - visceral and branchial skeleton and its modifications - [Teeth and Dentition](https://www.iaszoology.com/teeth-and-dentition/) - TEETH & DENTITION IN VERTEBRATES Teeth are hard bony structures in the oral cavity that are variously modified to capture, tear, cut or grind food material before it is swallowed. Epidermal teeth are hard cornified epidermal structures of rare occurrence, as in the buccal funnel of cyclostomes and on the edges of tadpole jaws. Dermal - [VERTEBRATE EAR](https://www.iaszoology.com/ear/) - power of hearing, balance, sound reception, phonoreceptor, internal, middle and external ear, cochlea, semicircular canals, lagena, sacculus, utriculus, crista. - [VERTEBRATE EYE](https://www.iaszoology.com/eye/) - All vertebrates have eyes that are similar in basic construction plan. This eye must have evolved very early in chordate evolution and then got modified subsequently to increase its efficiency in higher vertebrates. Vertebrate eye is a hollow ball made of three layers, outermost of which is called sclera that is made of bone, cartilage - [THE BRAIN](https://www.iaszoology.com/the-brain/) - brain, human brain, thinking, cerebrum - [Ducts](https://www.iaszoology.com/ducts/) - Ducts of kidneys and the ducts of gonads show variations in vertebrates so that sometimes they are common and sometimes exchange their normal functions. The function of kidney ducts is to transport urine and ducts of gonads carry either the sperms or ova. In male and female vertebrates their modifications are different because of different - [Gonads](https://www.iaszoology.com/gonads/) - GONADS IN VERTEBRATES The gonads are organs that produce gametes which are sperms and ova. In males gonads are called testes and in females ovaries. The gametes are haploid germ cells whether they are spermatozoa or ova. Gonads also produce sex hormones that affect body growth and secondary sexual characters. TESTES The testes are male - [Kidneys](https://www.iaszoology.com/kidneys/) - VERTEBRATE KIDNEYS Excretory organs in protochordates are very different from the higher vertebrates. Balanoglossus (Hemichordata) has a glomerulus in the proboscis region to excrete nitrogenous wastes from the blood. Herdmania (Urochordata) has a neural organ near the solid nerve ganglion located in between the two siphons. Amphioxus (Cephalochordata) possesses protonephridia that carry hundreds of flame - [Comparative Anatomy Books](https://www.iaszoology.com/comparative-anatomy-books/) - BOOKS ON COMPARATIVE ANATOMY Liem, K. F., Bemis,W. E., Walker, W.F. & Grande, L. 2001. Functional Anatomy of the Vertebrates: An Evolutionary Perspective. Brooks Cole; 784 pages. Kardong, Kenneth V. 2008. Vertebrates Comparative Anatomy, Function, Evolution. McGraw Hill Higher Education. 5th edition (October 30, 2008). 800 pages. Kent, G.C. 1969. Comparative anatomy of the vertebrates. - [Integrated Pest Management](https://www.iaszoology.com/integrated-pest-management/) - Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is that method of pest control, which utilizes all suitable techniques of pest control to reduce pest populations and maintain them below economic injury level. IPM is also defined as a stable system of crop protection, which based on the ecological relations within the crop and the environment, combines several methods - [Ecology Books](https://www.iaszoology.com/ecology-books/) - Books on Ecology & Environmental Science Chapman, J.L. & Reiss, M.J. 1992. Ecology: Principles and applications. Cambridge Univ. Press. 294 pages. Cunningham, W.P. & Cunningham, M.A. 2003. Principles of environmental science, inquiry and applications. Tata McGraw-Hill Publ. Co. Ltd. 424 pages. Faurie, Claude et al. 2001. Ecology: Science and practice. Oxford & IBH Publ. Co. - [Mass Extinctions](https://www.iaszoology.com/mass-extinctions/) - The Mystery Of Mass Extinctions One of the most puzzling phenomena in the evolutionary history of animals is the periodic mass extinctions. From time to time our planet has experienced holocausts of gigantic magnitude which wiped out from the face of earth majority of life forms. Life then had to start and grow afresh. Often - [Speed of Evolution](https://www.iaszoology.com/speed-of-evolution/) - Evolution has never proceeded with a uniform speed over long periods but its rate has fluctuated due to environmental changes, geological upheavals, mutation rates and selection pressures operating differently in different situations. Both internal as well as external factors determine the rate of evolution in organisms. In a non-changing environment, evolution is always slow as the - [Evolutionary Rates](https://www.iaszoology.com/evolutionary-rates/) - Absolute dating of fossils Various methods that use radioisotopes are employed to find out the age of fossils. For example U235 decays to Pb217 with a half-life of 713,000,000 years, that is, whatever amount you begin with will be halved every 713,000,000 years. We need to know how much radioactive material was there in the - [Character displacement](https://www.iaszoology.com/character-displacement/) - evolutionary phenomenon - [Parallel evolution](https://www.iaszoology.com/parallel-evolution/) - Independent acquisition of similarities in characters in organisms is called Homoplasy. But if this similarity is found in closely related animals that have descended from common ancestor, it is called parallelism and is caused by parallel evolution. As the animals are closely related, they respond to the selection force by modifying organs in a similar - [Evolution types](https://www.iaszoology.com/evolution-types/) - Micro, Macro & Megaevolution Based on the degree of change and speed of evolution three stages in evolutionary process can be identified: 1) Origin of small evolutionary differences at subspecific level. 2) Modifications in larger groups of animals, producing species and genera by adaptive radiation. 3) Evolution of new types from their predecessors by large - [Darwinian Fitness](https://www.iaszoology.com/fitness/) - Darwinian fitness is the reproductive advantage that an individual obtains from its genotype. It is also known as Selective Value or Adaptive Value and is a composite of many advantageous as well as disadvantageous characteristics of the animal. Fittest is not the individual that can survive but the one that can leave the largest number - [Evolution books](https://www.iaszoology.com/evolution-books/) - books on evolutionary biology - [Geological Eras](https://www.iaszoology.com/geological-eras/) - Geological Time Chart (Evolution of major groups of animals) Era Period Epoch Million Years Organisms evolved Coenozoic Quaternary Holocene 0.01-0 Dominance of man. Domestication of animals and agriculture. Modern genera and species evolved. Last ice age 30-40 thousand years ago. Woolly mammoth extinct. Pleistocene 1.5-0.1 Mass extinction. Huge floods. Ice age. Many large mammals extinct. - [Sewall Wright Effect](https://www.iaszoology.com/sewall-wright-effect/) - Genetic Drift - (Sewall Wright effect) The American scientist Sewall Wright (1930) gave the principles of gene frequency fluctuations in small populations in his essay, Effect of population size. According to genetic drift, in small, non-randomly mating populations gene frequencies are found to fluctuate purely by chance. Smaller the population, larger will be the fluctuation - [Ethology Books](https://www.iaszoology.com/ethology-books/) - books on animal behaviour - [Marsupials](https://www.iaszoology.com/marsupials/) - Order MARSUPIALIA Marsupials include kangaroos, koalas, wallabies, wombats, bandicoots, and opossums. The red kangaroo (Macropus rufus) is the largest of them that can reach a height of six feet when standing on hind legs and weigh as much as 80 kg. The smallest living marsupials include the pilbara (Ningaui timealeyi) that weighs less than 3.0 - [Egg-laying mammals](https://www.iaszoology.com/egg-laying-mammals/) - MONOTREMES (The Egg-laying Mammals) Monotremata is derived from the Greek term, monos = single and trema = hole, referring to the single excretory opening cloaca in these animals. They lay eggs instead of giving birth young ones. Family ORNITHORYNCHIDAE Monotrematum sudamericanum * (* indicates Extinct species) Obdurodon dicksoni * Obdurodon insignis * Ornithorynchus anatinus (modern platypus) Family TACHYGLOSSIDAE - [Classification of Reptilia](https://www.iaszoology.com/classification-of-reptilia/) - Class REPTILIA The upper part of the skull of reptiles is modified giving the reptiles a far more efficient and powerful jaw action and making the skull light. The reptiles are classified mainly on the structure of their skulls, in which there are temporal vacuities or fossae or empty spaces in the temporal region. The - [Reptilian Skulls](https://www.iaszoology.com/reptilian-skulls/) - SKULL TYPES IN REPTILES Reptiles are ectothermic animals whose body is covered by epidermal scales. They possess monocondylic skull that rests on a long neck made of atlas, axis and other cervical vertebrae. They have two sacral vertebrae, which are fused together to transfer the weight of body onto the hind limbs. Pentadactyle limbs bear - [Neoteny](https://www.iaszoology.com/neoteny/) - The term neoteny is derived from Latin neotenia; neo + Greek teinein = to extend, meaning when larval life is extended. Neoteny also called juvenilization, is the retention, by adults in a species, of traits previously seen only in juveniles. Neoteny has two forms depending upon capability of individuals to breed. Pedomorphosis was first proposed - [Classification of Amphibia](https://www.iaszoology.com/classification-of-amphibia/) - Amphibians such as frogs, toads,, salamanders and limbless ones, are cold-blooded animals that metamorphose from water-breathing tadpole to an air-breathing adult. There are 6184 species of amphibians today. The West African goliath frog, which is 30 cm long and weighs 3.3 kilograms, is the largest anuran and the smallest is the Brazilian brachycephalid tree frog, - [Scales in fishes](https://www.iaszoology.com/scales-in-fishes/) - Fishes possess dermal scales on the body for protection. Each scale is made of dentine that is secreted by dermal papilla which is a group of specialized cells capable of drawing nourishment from neighbouring tissues to produce an organ. The exposed portion of scale is covered with a layer of hard enamel to minimise wear - [Retrogressive Metamorphosis](https://www.iaszoology.com/retrogressive-metamorphosis/) - Retrogressive Metamorphosis in Urochordates Metamorphosis is a change from the juvenile to adult stage in which larval stage is quite different from the adult stage. In retrogressive metamorphosis the larva possesses advanced characters which are lost during the development and the adult is either sedentary or degenerated with primitive characters. Urochordate adults, being sedentary show - [Echinoderm larvae](https://www.iaszoology.com/echinoderm-larvae/) - Echinoderm larvae of different types and different classes are described with characteristics. - [Echinodermata Classification](https://www.iaszoology.com/echinodermata-classification/) - Classification of Phylum Echinodermata up to subclasses is given along with examples. - [Insect Metamorphosis](https://www.iaszoology.com/insect-metamorphosis/) - Change from juvenile stage to adult stage is called metamorphosis. - [Insect Mouth Parts](https://www.iaszoology.com/insect-mouth-parts/) - Different types of adaptations in mouth parts of insects is described. - [Parasitic Crustacea](https://www.iaszoology.com/parasitic-crustacea/) - parasitic species of 6 subclasses - [Arthropod Respiration](https://www.iaszoology.com/arthropod-respiration/) - respiratory organs of arthropods, such as gills. tracheal system and book lungs described. - [Arthropod Eye & Vision](https://www.iaszoology.com/arthropod-eye-vision/) - types of eyes in arthropods and mechanism of vision explained - [Onychophora](https://www.iaszoology.com/onychophora/) - Connecting link between Annelida and Arthropoda. - [Polychaete Diversity](https://www.iaszoology.com/polychaete-diversity/) - mode of life in polychaeta - [Classification of Coelenterata](https://www.iaszoology.com/classification-of-coelenterata/) - PHYLUM COELENTERATA (=CNIDARIA) Coelenterates are radially symmetrical, diploblastic aquatic animals with diffused nervous system. Stinging cells or nematocysts are present for defense. Digestive system is in a blind sac plan, with mouth as the only opening. Life cycle shows a kind of alternation of generations called metagenesis. Class HYDROZOA Solitary or colonial, with polyp as - [Monocystis](https://www.iaszoology.com/monocystis/) - earthworm parasite - [Privacy Policy](https://www.iaszoology.com/privacy-policy/) - Privacy Policy for IAS Zoology If you require any more information or have any questions about our privacy policy, please feel free to contact us by email at Privacy Policy. At www.iaszoology.com we consider the privacy of our visitors to be extremely important. This privacy policy document describes in detail the types of personal information - [Principles of distribution](https://www.iaszoology.com/principles-of-distribution/) - DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS (Dr. Girish Chandra) Zoogeography deals with the study of distribution of land animals and those living in freshwater. Marine animals cannot be confined to any one region as the seas are interconnected and the only possible barrier for them can be climate. Hence most of the animal distribution studies are - [Principles of distribution](https://www.iaszoology.com/principles-of-distribution/) - DISTRIBUTION OF ANIMALS (Dr. Girish Chandra) Zoogeography deals with the study of distribution of land animals and those living in freshwater. Marine animals cannot be confined to any one region as the seas are interconnected and the only possible barrier for them can be climate. Hence most of the animal distribution studies are - [E-Books for sale](https://www.iaszoology.com/e-books-for-sale/) - e-books in website www.iaszoology.com - [eBooks Online Order](https://www.iaszoology.com/order-online-ebooks/) - [Evolution of sex](https://www.iaszoology.com/evolution-of-sex/) - evolution of sex in protozoa - [Applied Entomology Books](https://www.iaszoology.com/applied-entomology-books/) - BOOKS ON ECONOMIC ENTOMOLOGY Agricultural Entomology V.P.S. Panwar, 1995. Agricultural insect pests of crops and their control. (Kalyani Publ.). 286 pages. L.K. Jha, 1987. Applied agricultural entomology. (New central book agency, Calcutta). 258 pages + index. O.S. Bindra & Harcharan Singh, 1971. Pesticide application equipment. (Oxford & IBH). 307 pages. Harcharan Singh, 1984. Household and - [Human Riddle](https://www.iaszoology.com/human-evolution-2/) - THE RIDDLE OF HUMAN ORIGIN Our own origin and existence on the planet earth happens to be one of the most puzzling facts of nature. There is hardly any straight record of human history prior to the invention of writing around 3,500 B.C., and while a large number of animals tell the story of their - [Charles Darwin](https://www.iaszoology.com/charles-darwin/) - Darwin's biography and publications - [Apterygota](https://www.iaszoology.com/insect-orders/) - THE APTERYGOTES Order PROTURA (Protos=first; uros=tail) (Ex. Telson-tails, Acerantomon) This order includes 90 species. They are minute insects with somewhat depressed, soft white bodies, with prognathous head and without eyes. Antennae are also absent. They are primitively wingless, with reduced prothorax. Tarsus is one-segmented. Abdomen is 11-segmented, with telson (that is why called telson-tails) but - [Cephalochordata](https://www.iaszoology.com/cephalochordata/) - Cephalochordata may be the most primitive subphylum of chordates and the sister group of the vertebrates. However, recent molecular studies (Benton 2005) place cephalochordates near the vertebrates and most authors also regard Amphioxus as the closest relative of Vertebrates. With about 25 species inhabiting shallow tropical and temperate oceans, Cephalochordata are a small branch of - [Fauna of Neotropical Region](https://www.iaszoology.com/neotropical/) - South America, most of Mexico, West Indies, Caribbean islands. Mostly tropical but the southern part extends into temperate zone. Rain forests on the western side. Grasslands in the middle in Argentina. Andes mountain on the western coast. Mammals. There are 32 families of mammals of which 16 are unique. Widely distributed animals are shrews, rabbits, - [Factors Affecting Dispersal Of Animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/factors/) - SUMMARY There are four main factors due to which animals and plants are prevented from spreading to every possible area. 1. Climate. Animals are adapted to a combination of temperature and humidity that is affected by rainfall. Lower temperature prevents majority of reptiles from migrating northwards into the temperate areas. Polar bear, penguins and a ## Categories - [Zoology for IAS](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/zoology-for-ias/) - [Animal diversity (Nonchordata)](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/animal-diversity-nonchordata/) - Non-chordates are animals without a notochord. They are the most abundant and diversified of all animals living or extinct. That makes their study the most fascinating one. - [Animal diversity (Chordata)](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/animal-diversity-chordata/) - Chordates are characterised by a rod-like notochord and a hollow nerve cord on the dorsal side of the gut, and pharynx being perforated with gill slits for respiration. - [Animal Behaviour](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/animal-behavior/) - Ethology is the science of the study of animal behaviour. It deals with the response of animals to various stimuli and factors operating in the environment. - [Evolutionary Biology](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/evolution/) - Biological phenomena are so complex that they can be logically explained only in the light of evolution. - [Ecology & Environment](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/ecology/) - Ecology is a science to study organisms living in an environment and interacting with it and among themselves. It gives importance to both living and non-living components that affect each other. - [Comparative Anatomy](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/comparative-anatomy/) - Comparative Anatomy is to make a comparative study of the anatomy of an organ in different groups of vertebrates and try to derive the evolutionary significance from it, and to understand as to why an organ evolved the way it is present now. - [Zoogeography](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/zoogeography/) - Zoogeography is the study of distribution of animals and plants on our planet, which occur in different regions of the world in a distinct pattern. - [Applied Entomology](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/applied-entomology/) - Applied Entomology deals with both destructive and useful insects, namely, productive insects such as honey bee and silk worm, whose products can be directly used by man. - [Cell Biology](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/cell-biology/) - CYTOLOGY, Microtomy, Plasmids - [Yoga, Fitness & Health](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/yoga/) - Yoga to improve learning - [General information - IAS](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/general-information/) - General Information About Civil Services Examinations - [Economic Zoology](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/economic-zoology/) - Applied aspect of zoology - [Instruments & Techniques](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/instruments-and-techniques/) - A variety of instruments and techniques are used in biological studies, some of them are quite complex in nature. - [Systematics & Taxonomy](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/systematics/) - Systematics is the study of the diversity of animals and plants and their evolutionary relationships. Taxonomy deals with the classification of organisms, giving them scientific names and categorizing them on scientific basis. - [Wildlife (India)](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/wildlife-india/) - Wildlife involves the study of wild undomesticated animals and plants living in their natural habitats and their ecological interactions. - [General Entomology](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/general-entomology/) - Entomology is the science of studying insects that constitute about 75% of the animal kingdom as far as the number of species is concerned. - [Syllabus, Civil & Forest Services](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/syllabus/) - Changes in syllabus and pattern of the Preliminary Examination from 2011 in the scheme of Civil Services Examination - [Amazing animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/amazing-animals/) - Amazing facts about animals. - [Arthropod Vectors](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/arthropod-vectors-2/) - [Human Diseases](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/human-diseases-2/) - In this section, diagnosis, pathogenesis, identification of causative organism, prevention including vaccination wherever available, treatment and drugs commonly prescribed are given. - [Medical Entomology](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/medical-entomology-2/) - Many insects transmit diseases in humans or suck blood or cause nuisance and irritation and hence are undesirable and need eradication. The following insects are included in this section. - [Insects of Forests & Orchards](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/insects-of-forests-orchards/) - PESTS OF TREES. Large trees in forests, plantations and orchards are attacked by different types of insects. - [Stored Grain Pests](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/stored-grain-pests/) - When harvested produce is stored in houses, godowns and warehouses, it is attacked by a variety of insects that specialise in thriving under enclosed conditions. - [Organisms used in Research](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/organisms-for-research/) - Organisms Commonly Used In Scientific Research. - [Veterinary Zoology](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/veterinary-zoology/) - Animals suffer from a variety of diseases like humans. In animal husbandry, poultry, and pets it is important to know the symptoms of diseases so that timely treatment can be done. - [Indian Crop Pests](https://www.iaszoology.com/category/indian-crop-pests/) - A large number of insects attack crops in various stages of growth and cause immense economic losses. ## Tags - [cell](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/cell/) - [cytology](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/cytology/) - [zoology](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/zoology/) - [ias](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ias/) - [insects](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/insects/) - [Dengue](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/dengue/) - [Japanese Encephalitis](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/japanese-encephalitis/) - [Add new tag](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/add-new-tag/) - [Rabies](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/rabies/) - [Epidemic Typhus](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/epidemic-typhus/) - [Tuberculosis](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/tuberculosis/) - [Amoebiasis](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/amoebiasis/) - [Mosquitoes](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/mosquitoes/) - [lice](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/lice/) - [housefly](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/housefly/) - [sandfly](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/sandfly/) - [fleas](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/fleas/) - [tsetsefly](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/tsetsefly/) - [tabanus](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/tabanus/) - [stomoxys](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/stomoxys/) - [ticks](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ticks/) - [mites](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/mites/) - [ifs](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ifs/) - [civil services](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/civil-services/) - [UPSC](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/upsc/) - [competitive exams.](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/competitive-exams/) - [Dr. Girish Chandra](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/dr-girish-chandra/) - [entomology](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/entomology/) - [Delhi University](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/delhi-university/) - [Kirori Mal College](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/kirori-mal-college/) - [bed bugs](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/bed-bugs/) - [house flies](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/house-flies/) - [sand flies](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/sand-flies/) - [termites](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/termites/) - [locusts](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/locusts/) - [pests](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/pests/) - [stored grains](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/stored-grains/) - [sitophilus](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/sitophilus/) - [trogoderma](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/trogoderma/) - [callosobruchus](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/callosobruchus/) - [corcyra](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/corcyra/) - [ephestia](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ephestia/) - [natural selection](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/natural-selection/) - [hardy-weinberg law](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/hardy-weinberg-law/) - [sewall-wright effect](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/sewall-wright-effect/) - [isolation](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/isolation/) - [speciation](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/speciation/) - [fossils](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/fossils/) - [horse](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/horse/) - [elephant](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/elephant/) - [man](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/man/) - [Darwin](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/darwin/) - [anagenesis](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/anagenesis/) - [cladogenesis](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/cladogenesis/) - [molecular evolution](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/molecular-evolution/) - [mass extinctions](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/mass-extinctions/) - [classification](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/classification/) - [apterygota](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/apterygota/) - [exopterygota](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/exopterygota/) - [endopterygota](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/endopterygota/) - [insect rearing](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/insect-rearing/) - [insect collection](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/insect-collection/) - [wildlife](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/wildlife/) - [conservation](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/conservation/) - [national parks](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/national-parks/) - [project tiger](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/project-tiger/) - [wild mammals](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/wild-mammals/) - [the apes](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/the-apes/) - [birds](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/birds/) - [reptiles](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/reptiles/) - [amphibians](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/amphibians/) - [economic entomology](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/economic-entomology/) - [agriculture](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/agriculture/) - [household insects](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/household-insects/) - [medical entomology](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/medical-entomology/) - [pest control](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/pest-control/) - [genetic control](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/genetic-control/) - [Sterile male technique](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/sterile-male-technique/) - [integrated pest management](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/integrated-pest-management/) - [apiculture](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/apiculture/) - [sericulture](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/sericulture/) - [lac culture](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/lac-culture/) - [honey bee](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/honey-bee/) - [ecosystem](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ecosystem/) - [population](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/population/) - [ipm](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ipm/) - [environment](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/environment/) - [non-chordata](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/non-chordata/) - [invertebrates](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/invertebrates/) - [protozoa](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/protozoa/) - [parazoa](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/parazoa/) - [sponges](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/sponges/) - [porifera](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/porifera/) - [coelenterates](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/coelenterates/) - [hydra](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/hydra/) - [gelly fish](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/gelly-fish/) - [protostomes](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/protostomes/) - [deuterostomes](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/deuterostomes/) - [bilateria](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/bilateria/) - [radiata](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/radiata/) - [symmery](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/symmery/) - [platyhelminthes](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/platyhelminthes/) - [nemathelminthes](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/nemathelminthes/) - [nematodes](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/nematodes/) - [arthropoda](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/arthropoda/) - [crustacea](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/crustacea/) - [insecta](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/insecta/) - [mollusca](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/mollusca/) - [pila](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/pila/) - [sepia](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/sepia/) - [gastropods](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/gastropods/) - [echinodermata](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/echinodermata/) - [hemichordata](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/hemichordata/) - [balanoglossus](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/balanoglossus/) - [starfsh](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/starfsh/) - [chaetognatha](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/chaetognatha/) - [bryozoa](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/bryozoa/) - [phoronida](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/phoronida/) - [unio](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/unio/) - [scorpion](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/scorpion/) - [taxonomy](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/taxonomy/) - [species](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/species/) - [zoological nomenclature](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/zoological-nomenclature/) - [cladism](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/cladism/) - [distribution](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/distribution/) - [animal dispersal](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/animal-dispersal/) - [continental drift](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/continental-drift/) - [zoogeographical regions](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/zoogeographical-regions/) - [insular fauna](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/insular-fauna/) - [wallace's line](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/wallaces-line/) - [african region](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/african-region/) - [australian region](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/australian-region/) - [nearctic region](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/nearctic-region/) - [neotropical region](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/neotropical-region/) - [palaearctic region](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/palaearctic-region/) - [oriental region](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/oriental-region/) - [integument](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/integument/) - [digestive system](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/digestive-system/) - [respiratory system](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/respiratory-system/) - [circulatory system](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/circulatory-system/) - [urinogenital system](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/urinogenital-system/) - [the brain](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/the-brain/) - [eye](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/eye/) - [ear](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ear/) - [skeleton](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/skeleton/) - [vertebrate anatomy](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/vertebrate-anatomy/) - [ias exam](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ias-exam/) - [spectrophotometer](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/spectrophotometer/) - [phase contrast microscopy](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/phase-contrast-microscopy/) - [fluorescence microscopy](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/fluorescence-microscopy/) - [ultracentrifuge](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ultracentrifuge/) - [gel electrophoresis](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/gel-electrophoresis/) - [pcr](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/pcr/) - [elisa](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/elisa/) - [blotting](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/blotting/) - [fish](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/fish/) - [chromosome painting](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/chromosome-painting/) - [transmission electron microscope](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/transmission-electron-microscope/) - [scanning electron microscope](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/scanning-electron-microscope/) - [civil services exam](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/civil-services-exam/) - [ifs exam](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ifs-exam/) - [ips exam](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ips-exam/) - [syllabus ias exam](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/syllabus-ias-exam/) - [IAS preparation](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ias-preparation/) - [thought control](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/thought-control/) - [pranayama](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/pranayama/) - [yoga science](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/yoga-science/) - [yogis mind](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/yogis-mind/) - [spirituality](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/spirituality/) - [brain](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/brain/) - [mind](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/mind/) - [meditation](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/meditation/) - [behaviour](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/behaviour/) - [sensory filtering](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/sensory-filtering/) - [drive](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/drive/) - [urge](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/urge/) - [learning](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/learning/) - [pheromones](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/pheromones/) - [crypsis](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/crypsis/) - [social insects](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/social-insects/) - [social primates](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/social-primates/) - [courtship behaviour](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/courtship-behaviour/) - [orientation](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/orientation/) - [navigation](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/navigation/) - [homing in birds](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/homing-in-birds/) - [chronobiology](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/chronobiology/) - [biological clock](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/biological-clock/) - [biological rhythms](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/biological-rhythms/) - [chordata](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/chordata/) - [protochordates](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/protochordates/) - [Herdmania](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/herdmania/) - [Amphioxus](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/amphioxus/) - [fishes](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/fishes/) - [fish scales](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/fish-scales/) - [fish locomotion](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/fish-locomotion/) - [fish migration](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/fish-migration/) - [tetrapod origin](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/tetrapod-origin/) - [amphibia](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/amphibia/) - [neoteny](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/neoteny/) - [paedomorphosis](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/paedomorphosis/) - [paedogenesis](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/paedogenesis/) - [reptilia](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/reptilia/) - [sphenodon](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/sphenodon/) - [crocodiles](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/crocodiles/) - [bird classification](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/bird-classification/) - [bird evolution](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/bird-evolution/) - [bird flight](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/bird-flight/) - [bird migration](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/bird-migration/) - [mammals](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/mammals/) - [monotremes](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/monotremes/) - [marsupials](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/marsupials/) - [american marsupials](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/american-marsupials/) - [primates](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/primates/) - [pyrilla](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/pyrilla/) - [achaea](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/achaea/) - [carp culture](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/carp-culture/) - [pearl culture](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/pearl-culture/) - [prawn culture](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/prawn-culture/) - [cetipedes](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/cetipedes/) - [wasps](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/wasps/) - [bee](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/bee/) - [human diseases](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/human-diseases/) - [cattle diseases](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/cattle-diseases/) - [arthropod vectors](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/arthropod-vectors/) - [snakes of India](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/snakes-of-india/) - [research organisms](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/research-organisms/) - [Escherichia coli](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/escherichia-coli/) - [Saccharomyces](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/saccharomyces/) - [neurospora](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/neurospora/) - [arabidopsis](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/arabidopsis/) - [caenorhabditis](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/caenorhabditis/) - [drosophila](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/drosophila/) - [mus musculus](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/mus-musculus/) - [experimental animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/experimental-animals/) - [Ecology & Environment](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ecology-environment/) - [Fitness & Health](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/fitness-health/) - [Systematics & Taxonomy](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/systematics-taxonomy/) - [Ethology (Animal Behaviour)](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ethology/) - [Evolutionary Biology](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/evolution/) - [Comparative Anatomy](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/comparative-anatomy/) - [Zoogeography](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/zoogeography/) - [Applied Entomology](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/applied-entomology/) - [Cell Biology](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/cell-biology/) - [Yoga, Fitness & Health](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/yoga/) - [amazing](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/amazing/) - [animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/animals/) - [strange animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/strange-animals/) - [polar bear](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/polar-bear/) - [ants](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ants/) - [blue whale](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/blue-whale/) - [bear](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/bear/) - [carnivore](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/carnivore/) - [white](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/white/) - [Ursus](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/ursus/) - [maritimus](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/maritimus/) - [snow](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/snow/) - [predator](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/predator/) - [Amazing animals](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/amazing-animals/) - [naked mole rat](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/naked-mole-rat/) - [Hetercephalus](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/hetercephalus/) - [rodent](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/rodent/) - [underground](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/underground/) - [mammal](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/mammal/) - [social life](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/social-life/) - [incisors](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/incisors/) - [Africa](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/africa/) - [subterranean](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/subterranean/) - [bat](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/bat/) - [vampire](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/vampire/) - [blood sucker](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/blood-sucker/) - [Desmodus](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/desmodus/) - [Vampyrum](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/vampyrum/) - [Megaderma](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/megaderma/) - [dracula](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/dracula/) - [South America](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/south-america/) - [flying mammal](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/flying-mammal/) - [patagium](https://www.iaszoology.com/tag/patagium/)